Lecture Notes (which are not a substitute for the book) Burton F

Reading Notes by Christopher Lay

Los Angeles Pierce College

Department of History, Philosophy, & Sociology

Burton F. Porter's The Voice of Reason: Fundamentals of Critical Thinking, Oxford University Press, 2002.

Chapter One: Critical Thinking


Chapter One	"Critical Thinking"	Burton F. Porter's The Voice of Reason: Fundamentals of Critical Thinking, Oxford University Press, 2002.

"By Force of Argument"	How are we to settle disputes? Fisticuffs or words? Diplomacy or wars?	"We don't want to fool others or ourselves into accepting something that has no real foundation." "Rather, we want to believe things with good reason."

	The goal Not to think, but to think better	Our textbook, and this course "won't teach you how to think, but it should make you think better, that is, in a more rigorous and systematic way," in a more logical way.

Writing	Our own written arguments frequently benefit from the very act of writing Sometimes, "when we put words down on paper or up on the screen we realize what we believe"	"In writing ... as opposed to constructing ideas only in our heads, we have a great advantage. By some mysterious process, when we put words down on paper or up on the screen we realize what we believe."

	"ideas seem to be formed in the act of writing" "We find out what we think by writing it down"	"Psychologists used to declare that first we think and then we write, and to some extent that is true. But for the most part, ideas seem to be formed in the act of writing. In other words, writing appears to be a mode of thinking rather than a way of finding words for our thoughts. We find out what we think by writing it down."

"Avoiding Self-Contradictions	Maintaining consistency Something that no longer exists cannot at the same time currently exist "[T]he two cannot both be true because they are mutually exclusive"	"One of the most important elements in reasoning well is to maintain consistency. We begin with "the realization that we cannot claim one thing and at the same time claim its opposite." "If we claim it is day, then we are denying it is night, and if we call sugar sweet, we cannot also consider it sour. The one negates the other, so to assert something is to deny its opposite; the two cannot both be true because they are mutually exclusive."

Law of Non-Contradiction	"[A] proposition cannot both be affirmed and denied simultaneously"	"This fundamental principle of reasoning is called the law of noncontradiction–" "It states that a proposition cannot both be affirmed and denied simultaneously, for that would make nonsense of the whole process of rational thinking."

Respects	"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times ... ." It was the best of times in one respect and at the same time, It was the worst of times in a different respect

"Contradictions in Theories"	What is our theory about competition? Winning is everything ≠ Its how you play the game that matters Respects?	"virtue always triumphs and crime does not pay" "Kind souls become casualties and victims in the struggle for survival" "Crime actually pays very well" "Now either one theory or the other may be true, but not both. Yet we tend to accept the two without realizing the contradiction." "Is the important thing how you play the game, or is winning the main thing, in fact the only thing? Should you play by the rules, or are rules made to be broken?"

"Contradictions in Statements"	"'All generalizations are false.'" "'There's an exception to every rule'" "The French novelist Albert Camus once remarked that the minute we declare 'Everything is absurd' we contradict ourselves, for we have said something meaningful" "No one goes to that club anymore, it's too crowded"	"'All generalizations are false.' However, this is a self-contradictory statement, for if all generalizations are false then this generalization also is false. Therefore, we can generalize and all generalizations are not false." "it is impossible for someone to claim 'There's an exception to every rule,' because if it were true then this rule too would have an exception. Some rules would hold true without exception, and this contradicts the original statement."

"Contradictions in Thought"	"'Don't get upset, but I have something to tell you. Sit down, and try to stay clam'" "'Remember you have a weak heart, so you mustn't worry'"	"double binds. In these cases we are asked to think or feel two things that are impossible to maintain simultaneously."

"Seeming Contradictions"	Contradiction ≠ Paradox & Contradiction ≠ Oxymoron	"there are seeming contradictions called paradoxes and oxymorons."

Paradoxes	"Paradoxes are statements that appear to be inconsistent, absurd, or opposed to common sense but may be true in a special or deeper sense" "'I don't care to belong to a club that accepts people like me as members'" vs. "'poverty is enriching'" "What doesn't kill you makes you stronger"?	"Sometimes self-contradictions can masquerade as paradoxes." "if we are told that war is peace, freedom is slavery, poverty is enriching, stumbling blocks are stepping stones, and problems are opportunities, that is the time to question whether this is profound or weather we are being taken."

Oxymorons	"An oxymoron is a figure of speech in which opposite or incongruous words are put together to express a point more pungently" "They are not conflicts in terms but only appear to be" Police intelligence Jumbo shrimp Cardboard reinforcement	"not mutually exclusive terms" For the most part, "oxymoronic contradictions are conceptual conflicts rather than things that are not found together in nature."

Trying it Out	I. 2 II. 3 II. 5 IV. 2 V. 1 V. 8 VI. 1 VI. 3 VII. 6 VII. 10

"How Words Have Meaning"	Not what words mean but How words mean anything "no inanimate thing can mean anything" An astrological "The End is Near"?	"if we want to know what words mean we consult a dictionary, but if we wonder how words mean that requires a different approach. In this case we are asking how it is possible for words to acquire meaning altogether." "In a larger sense, of course, no inanimate thing can mean anything; only people can 'mean' because we alone possess intentions. But we can transfer what we mean to words, which operate as symbols and carry the message we intend to convey." "how is it that words can mean?"

"Referential Theory of Meaning"	"A word stands for, represents, or severs as a label for various objects in the world" "The theory maintains that words were created as an expedient way of referring to physical objects" Different languages have different words that seem to refer to the same object	"words mean by referring to things." "A word stands for, represents, or severs as a label for various objects in the world. It names them, and enables us to understand each other by substituting the name for the thing." "human beings arbitrarily invented labels for the objects they encountered; it was a convenient way of communicating one's personal experience to others." "The referential theory is reinforced by the fact that we can translates words form one language to another" "Language, then, uses words as symbols for actual objects."

Problems	"not all words represent physical objects, and yet these words have meaning" Some words don't stand for any real-world object Conjunctions Prepositions Adjectives Abstract Objects	"some words do not stand for anything at all, even indirectly" "there are words that have meaning but do not represent any object, and if words can mean but not refer then referring cannot be the explanation of meaning."

Problems / Conjunctions & Prepositions	Yet, what object does "of" refer to? "After" isn't an object, but is a meaningful word	"The theory may hold true for nouns and proper names but it fails to account for conjunctions such as 'and,' 'or,' 'as,' 'but,' ... and prepositions such as 'with,' 'before,' 'after,' ... ."

Problems / Adjectives	Likewise "adjectives, such as 'blue' or 'angry,' or verbs, such as 'look' or 'run,' are not things we observe or name" "A blue sky may be seen, but not a blue, a runner, but not a run"

Problems / Abstract Objects	Unicorns aren't objects in the world, yet the word "unicorn" has meaning Neurasthenia isn't an object in the world, yet it means something	"'The King of [California] means something even though no one fits the description"

"Meaning and Use"	"[T]he meaning of a word as the conditions of its use" "That is, we know the meaning of a word when we understand the rules governing its employment" To know how to use the word "after" means you know its meaning "Once we have grasped the rules of usage, we know what the meaning of the word."	"To know the meaning of 'after,' for example, does not imply some object or image in our mind's eye, but knowing when the word may be applied. We can use 'after' for whatever follows in time or order, that which is subsequent." "it does not demand that all stand for things ... to give them meaning. For words do mean something, the only criterion is that there be conditions that govern their application. Words certainly do mean whatever we say they mean but only what convention dictates as the linguistic rules of a society." "So in response to the question of how words mean, this theory states that words have meaning in terms of accepted rules of usage."

Problems	But now words don't refer to reality Now words don't represent anything	"interpreting meaning as use radically separates language from reality. Language becomes a self-contained system without any reference to the external world." "words do not represent anything" "our words describe things as they are, the idea of meaning as nothing but use leaves us distinctly uneasy. That is, in some way language does seem to diagram reality and to be more than a self-contained system of rules."

"Using Terms and Mentioning Them"	Referring to what words (may) represent, using those words ≠ Referring to words themselves = Use ≠ Mention "a map is not the land itself" "if 'strawberries' were mentioned as something found in a dictionary, it would be a waste of time trying to find them there to eat with cream and sugar."	"In the process of communication we usually employ words to convey some meaning, but occasionally we refer only to the words themselves and not to what they convey." "In these cases the word is being mentioned rather than used, and we set it off in quotation marks to indicate that." "A word is not the thing it represents ... just as a portrait is not the person, and a map is not the land itself"

Quotation Marks	"To avoid miscommunication we must use quotation marks to signal that we are mentioning a word" "otherwise people will assume we are using it in the customary way"

Trying it Out	IV. 2 IV. 4

Chapter Two: The Way Words Work


		Burton F. Porter's The Voice of Reason: Fundamentals of Critical Thinking, Oxford University Press, 2002.

Why Words	Logical analysis demands the clear use of words Understanding the "basic elements that make up words" will help us in our future logical analyses	"we can use words more effectively as well as avoiding verbal mistakes that can confuse our thinking" "The basic elements that make up words are usually identified as intention, extension, and connotation."

The Basic Ingredients	Intension Extension Connotation

Intentions	"the qualities possessed in common by all objects that the term covers." "It refers to the distinguishing traits or features by virtue of which a word applies to particular things." "intension means the characteristics that are intended by the word"	"Intension refers to the general properties of a word, the qualities possessed in common by all objects that the term covers."

Horse E.G.	"the term 'horse' carries with it the intension of being a herbivorous mammal, four legged and solid hoofed, largely domesticated and used as a draft animal, [used] as a beast of burden, or [used] for riding."

Unicorns?	The term "unicorn" carries with it the intension of being a herbivorous mammal four legged solid hoofed single horned highly datable don't exist.	"A word can have meaning ... by virtue of its intention, the characteristics associated with it, even though it does not refer to anything real."

Extension	"extension means all the things to which the word applies, what it includes or covers." "extension tells us the objects to which the word extends"	"Extension doesn't just mean types or subsets, of course, it covers all instances of the word."

Horse E.G.	Trigger, Robin Lightning Ray, etc.	"The word 'horse' refers to all the world's horses, included the ones we have seen or known."

Intension w/out Extension	What words have intension, but no extension?

	Round squares? Square circles? Nirvana?

Unicorns?	Is this an instance of a word that has an intension (see above), but no extension? "some words do not stand for anything real and thus have intention but not extension (as in 'unicorn' and 'tooth fairy')" There are famous unicorns in myths, literature, and film, even though unicorns don't exist What of this confusion?

Extension w/out Intension	Words can extend to individuals, but nevertheless fail to "indicated what characteristics this thing must have"	"words can also have extension without intension" "words can designate something without indicated what characteristics this thing must have"

Proper Names	Gertrude, Hieronymus, Xurly, Verne, Christopher, Kweego, Herbert, Benahoot "The name 'Bill,' for example, does not contain any qualities that would indicate which people are named Bill. If we were to see that name on a roster, we would assume it applies to someone but we would not know who, just from reading the name, what the person is like."

Kweego & Benahoot	Doesn't "Bill," though, extend to males, and so wouldn't we know some of its extension? "Chris," on the other hand, is different. Likewise, can't we imagine cases were just by knowing a proper name, we know its extension precisely? My two mates and I have enrolled for an independent study. Imagine our roster, Kweego, Benahoot, and Christopher. Now imagine a context where it is obvious that you identify me with the name "Christopher" Is this an instance where "words can designate something without indicated what characteristics this thing must have?"

The See-Saw	Intension varies inversely with extension	"when we consider that relation between intension and extension we realize that the two vary inversely"

Larger and Smaller	The larger the intension, the smaller the extension, and vice versa Small intension: a herbivorous mammal four legged Large extension: cows, gazelles, horses, etc. Larger intension: a herbivorous mammal four legged solid hoofed Smaller extension: ~~cows, gazelles,~~ horses, etc.	"the larger the list of characteristics in the intension of a word, the smaller the number of things to which the word applies, that is, the smaller the extension" "the smaller the intension, the larger the number of things the extension will include"

What's What	"knowing the distinction between intension and extension helps us understand such phrases as 'business is business,' 'boys will be boys,' [etc.]"

Business E.G.	"Business is business" Extensional-business (commerce, competition, exchange, etc.) is intensional-business (money-making activity aimed at profit) (DeLuna v. J-Lo?)	"'business,' in the extensional sense of commerce, trade, industry, and so on, is 'business' in the intensional sense, a money-making activity devoted to growth and profit"

Boys E.G.	"Boys will be boys" Extensional-boys (male children) will be intensional boys (mischievous, fickle, rambunctious) (Spur Posse?)	"'Boys,' in the extensional meaning of male children, will be 'boys' in the intensional meaning of mischievous, willful, and unpredictable"

Trying it Out	I. 9 I. 10 II. 1 II. 9 III. 3 III. 4 IV. 3 IV. 7 IV. 10

The Connotation of Words	Emotional associations connected to a word ≠ explicit meaning of a word	"Connotation refers to the emotional associations surrounding a word, its overtones or colorations that affect our feelings and attitudes" "words are psychologically charged and elicit positive or negative reactions" "The explicit meaning of a word is one thing; the way it resonates within us is quite another, and that is the connotation"

Sexism	What do we call a male political figure that tears up as opposed to a female political figure that tears up? Do the different words we use, with their differing connotations, reflect a double-standard?	"In sexist language the man will be called worldly but the woman has been around; his politically skillful and shrewd, but she is devious and scheming; he is sexually active and therefore macho whereas she is a slut who sleeps around; he is in a bad mood (probably because the took the red eye from an important business meeting), but she is being bitchy (probably because of pms)."

Euphemisms	"a mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing " (Oxford Dictionary of American English)	"euphemisms. These are words with favorable or agreeable connotations ... The use of euphemisms is often laudable when they help people improve their self-image, but their use can also blur reality and be carried to the point of absurdity"

E.G.s Positive	They aren't garbage trucks, they are refuse collection vehicles Innocent victims killed by drones are collateral damage	"Something used is preowned, a prison is a correctional facility, jungles are rain forests, dormitories are residence halls, a zoo is a wildlife center, underdeveloped countries are developing nations, and vagrants are now homeless persons."

E.G.s Negative	Those who care about the environment are tree huggers Those who wear thick rimmed glasses, ride bikes with fixed gears, and use macs are hippsters	"Words with denigrating connotations are also used to influence our feelings"

Using Connotations	Connotations are important in persuasive arguments Very effective in drawing out emotions	"Connotation becomes as much a part of a word as its intension and extension, calling up images and sounds from our experience" "Regardless of whether its effect is beneficial or harmful, the connotation of a word evokes strong emotions in the way that visual symbols do such as flags, crucifixes, or electric guitars"

Dangers	Connotations, insofar as they are ≠ to explicit meaning, can "mask reality" Miss what words say, only react upon what they suggest	"Connotation also tends to mask reality, so that we do not see what words say but only feel what they suggest" "In critical thinking we must be acutely aware of connotative effects, and use the power of words very carefully"

Trying it Out	V. 1 V. 2 V. 6 VI. 3 VII. 3 VII. 5 VIII. XI. 1. d XI. 2. a XI. 2. c

Vagueness / Seeing Dimly	"Vague words or expressions lack clarity and distinctness, so that we don't know whether they apply in a given case."	"The limits of their application are fuzzy, and we are uncertain about what they include and exclude."

Acceptable Vagueness	Aristotle: "We must not expect more precision than the subject-matter admits"	"Vagueness ... is not a defect in itself, but it can be a problem when words are vaguer than they need to be." "We should not criticize definitions that are appropriately vague, or try to make words precise that do not lend themselves to exact numerical terms, but rather understand when precision and imprecision are appropriate."

Vagueness as a Description	Aristotle: "Our discussion will be adequate if it has as much clearness as the subject-matter admits of, for precision is not to be sought for alike in all discussions, any more than in all the products of the crafts." "it is the mark of an educated man to look for precision in each class of things just so far as the nature of the subject admits; it is evidently equally foolish to accept probable reasoning from a mathematician and to demand from a rhetorician scientific proofs"	"words can be appropriately vague as well." "Unlike the speed of light, the speed of comprehension is not quantitatively measurable, so an approximate answer is the best we can expect; the vagueness does not confuse or mislead anyone."

Description E.G.	Valentine's Day Preview: How much do you love me?	"the question, 'how much do you love me?' cannot be answered in numbers. Replies such as 'more than I can say,' 'as much as you deserve,' 'let me count the ways,' 'in an unconditional way.' or 'not wisely but too well' are perfectly appropriate." "Such matters are inherently vague and cannot be made exact."

Vagueness as a Charge	Word use that is unnecessarily vague is to be avoided The charge of vagueness comes from using unnecessarily vague words	"Language is labeled vague only when it is unnecessarily imprecise, when the intension does not allow us to identify the extension." When language is unnecessarily imprecise, "we criticize the usage, and vagueness becomes a charge."

Charge E.G.	"suppose we ask a used car salesman how much a car costs and we are told it's a bargain, a very good deal, less expensive than we might think, priced to move, sure to save us money, and so forth."	"These answers should make us very suspicious."

The Need for Precision	Affirmative action does not mean that the unqualified will be hired or admitted But what counts as a qualification?	"if a new set of regulations states that unqualified workers will be dismissed by the company's managers, it becomes critical to define 'unqualified' in very precise terms." Here, "[d]oes [unqualified] mean those with less than two years seniority, those who have a high rate of absenteeism, those who lack a high school education, those with physical disabilities, or those who are deficient in modern technological skills?"

The Ought for Vagueness	Avoid vagueness as much as possible for the sake of clarity, even when vagueness is unavoidable	"The general rule is that we should avoid using words in a vague way if we can help it." "if we are able to reduce vagueness by establishing definite boundaries as to what an expression does and does not apply to, then our understanding and our reasoning will be that much clearer."

Trying it Out	I. 3 I. 4 II. 2 II. 3

Ambiguity / Seeing Double	"In ambiguity a word contains several meanings, and we are uncertain which one is meant." In ambiguity, "[w]e are confused about the word, phrase, sentence, or passage because it can be understood in more than one sense."	"If vagueness is seeing dimly, then ambiguity is seeing double (or triple or quadruple)."

Multiple Meanings of Words	Many words have more than one meaning "Go to the bank" We can make up new words, like "interwebs" or we can give new meaning to old words, like "dial" in "dial up" internet connection "Roll up the window"	"Most words, of course, have multiple meanings, and if you think about it, that is what we should expect. A language has only a finite number of words to express an infinite number of things, so some words will be pressed into double service." "Our language expands, of course, with new words or coinages (quasar, inter[webs], gigabyte), but it is more common and efficient to add new meanings to old words."

Ambiguity as a Fact of Language	In context, not a problem "Go to he bank and deposit money into your savings account" "Go to the bank and cast your line in"	"The increase in the number of meaning does not cause misunderstandings so long as the context shows which meaning is intended." With ambiguity, "the texture of language is progressively enriched"

Ambiguity Neutral / Ambiguities Semantic & Ambiguities Syntactic	Semantic ≠ syntactic	"One traditional distinction that is made among types of ambiguity is between semantic and syntactic forms"

Neutral Semantic Ambiguity	"Semantic ambiguity has to do with the multiple meanings of a word as it appears in a sentence, either once or twice."

Single Use Semantic Ambiguity	"Bikinis now sold for a ridiculous figure"	"'To put babies to sleep you need a good rock.'" "In this instance we do no know whether 'rock' refers to a rocking cradle or a chunk of stone."

Double Use Semantic Ambiguity	"'Time flies like an arrow, but fruit flies like a banana (and fireflies like the wind)'"	"Examples in which a semantically ambiguous word appears twice (sometimes referred to as equivocation)"

Ambiguity as a Positive Tool	Ambiguity is not necessarily bad, and necessarily a mere fact of language, it can be a tool "In philosophy, I am a tool too!" My favorite ambiguity: "I confuse easily"–copyright me!	"we can use ambiguity in a comic way ... and this is perfectly innocent." "Puns, for instance, us the different meanings of words for jokes"

Ambiguity as a Charge	When the context does not settle the meaning, and you're not trying to tell a joke, you are open to being (negatively) charge with being ambiguous	"Problems arise only when the context fails to offer this guidance." "This is when we complain that the word is ambiguous." "Most of the time we use the word 'ambiguity' in this negative sense, that is, to indicate a misuse of language."

Negative Semantic Ambiguity	"'All committed people will get out the vote, 'John has just been committed, 'therefore John will get out the vote'"	"Ambiguities even appear in formal arguments"

Pernicious Semantic Ambiguity	The right to bear arms extends to whom?	"more serious ambiguities of a semantic kind occur in other contexts, such as in the U.S. Constitution." "Heated debate has take place over the Second Amendment to the Constitution, which states 'a well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.'" "Does this mean that only 'militia' such as the National Guard are allowed to have arms, or that every citizen has the right to own a gun (and all gun control laws are unconstitutional)?"

Semi-Neutral Semantic Ambiguity / Accent	"Under the broad category of semantic ambiguity the phenomenon of accent should also be mentioned." "Here ambiguity occurs because it is unclear which word in the sentence is being accented or emphasized."

Accent E.G. Banks	"The bank robber Willie Sutton was asked, 'Why do you rob banks?' and he answered, 'Because that's where they keep the money.'"	"The questioner was emphasizing the word 'rob,' but Sutton thought (or pretended) that 'banks' was being stressed."

Accent E.G. Harm	"'You should not harm someone who has harmed you' might mean be taken to mean that you ought not return injury for injury (we should turn the other cheek), or maybe that we should harm someone who has not harmed us."

Syntactic Ambiguity	"Syntactic ambiguity occurs when the grammatical arrangement of words makes the meaning of a sentence unclear." "The meaning of each word may be plain but we cannot understand the overall sense."	"Usually semantic ambiguity occurs because either the part of speech or the referent is unclear"

	"Eat here and get gas" "Hospitals Are Sued by Seven Foot Doctors" "Save soap and waste paper" "In 'Save soap and waste paper,' we do not know whether 'waste' is an adjective or a verb"

Negative Syntactic Ambiguity / Amphiboly	"'If John loves his family more than his mistress, then he is a good man, 'but John's mistress loves his family more than he does, 'therefore John is not a good man.'"	"we sometimes have syntactic ambiguity in formal arguments, and this is called amphiboly."

Instead	"'If John's mistress loves his family more than he does then he is a good not a man, 'but John loves his family more than his mistress, 'therefore John is a good man.'"

Take Away	Be aware of these differences and don't let them get in the way of your use of language	"Ambiguity therefore comes in various forms, and we ought to eliminate any ambiguity that could puzzle or trick people about our meanings. We might, of course, deliberately build ambiguities into our work for comic effect, and that is quite legitimate." "The ambiguity that should be avoided is the one that allows multiple meanings unnecessarily and causes confusion or misunderstanding."

Trying it Out	IV. 4 IV. 6 V. 7 VI. 3 VI. 5

Chapter Three: Language and Definition


		Burton F. Porter's The Voice of Reason: Fundamentals of Critical Thinking, Oxford University Press, 2002.

Part One	Types of Definitions: Stipulative and Reportive	"A definition, as we all know, states the meaning of a word. If we want to be technical we can say that the word being defined is the definiendum, and the definition offered is the definiens." There are "numerous types of definitions [that] exist, and defining a word can mean a variety of things." "The type of definition we select will depend on the nature of our argument, the kind of word being defined, and the audience we are addressing. The rule of thumb is to use the definition that explains most effectively the meaning we wish to convey."

Against Defining	False imposition of order onto an unordered word	"by defining things we separate them into discrete parts when in fact the world is continuous, a seamless cloth." "'The poor definition cutter with his logical scissors' artificially snips off pieces from the endlessness of reality in order to organize, contain, and ultimately gain power over them." "Once an object is named it becomes manageable, losing its mystery and independence." "Formulating things with words, the indictment continues, crystallizes them in time, giving them borers and limits. However, this does violence to the world, which is a dynamic flux of growth and decay." "Objects and events should be viewed in a continuum, as shades in a spectrum, not as separate entities. To define therefore gives people the illusion of control while falsifying the boundlessness and indivisibility of nature."

For Defining	"definitions probably increase our understanding of the world much more than they distort it"	"When objects or events are defined, we become aware of their characteristics and nature." "Perhaps the separation of elements from the whole is artificial, so that we are projecting order on reality." "Or perhaps there are natural divisions that allow us to make distinctions."

Practically Speaking	"Definitions provide us with an effective way of organizing our experience, and to enlarge our vocabulary is to enable ourselves to think in new ways"	"We must be sensitive to the way language can distort reality, but in general definitions enrich our understanding."

Stipulative Definitions	Proposed conventional meanings Sometimes context dependent	"Stipulative definitions are ... proposals to assign a certain meaning to a word in a given context."

	Stipulative, arbitrary definitions ≠ Stipulative, restrictive definitions	"Stipulative definitions ... come in two varieties, arbitrary and restrictive."

Arbitrary Stipulative Definitions	"In the arbitrary type [of stipulative definitions] people stipulate that, for their purposes, an invented word will henceforth carry a particular meaning" "In general, the arbitrary kind of stipulative definition consists of a new word proposed by someone in authority to stand for a freshly discovered object or event"	"For the most part, [stipulative definitions] are new coinages when no word exists in the language for what people want to describe." "New words introduced into a language are called neologisms."

The Need for Arbitrary Stipulative Definitions	A new phenomenon for which we have no word is discovered	"words [are] created because of a need to name a new [or hitherto undiscovered] phenomenon, and the words [are] defined as meaning that phenomenon."

E.G.s of Arbitrary Stipulative Definitions	Superego Email Outercourse Protention Refudiate?	"For example, Sigmund Freud invented three terms to stand for the fundamental energy systems of the psyche: The 'id' represents primal upsurging desires; the 'ego' means control by rationality and realism; and the 'superego' means the internalized social rules, manifested chiefly in the form of conscience."

Arbitrary Stipulative Definitions / Acronyms	"words formed from the initial letters of a phrase"	"In the category of arbitrary stipulative meanings are also acronyms, or words formed from the initial letters of a phrase."

E.G.s of Acronyms	Nimby: not in my back yard (light-rail to the ocean through the westside? Scuba: self contained underwater breathing apparatus Snafu: situation normal: all fucked up	"'nimby,' not in my back yard ... ." "Some words that we now take for granted were originally acronyms, such as 'scuba,' self-contained underwater breathing apparatus"

Acronyms?	OMG: oh my god LOL: laugh out loud WTF: why the face?

Restrictive Stipulative Definitions	"proposals to restrict a word's meaning to some specialized sense of a term" "In stipulative definitions of a restrictive kind an attempt is made to reduce vagueness and ambiguity to a minimum, and to confine the usage to very narrow limits"	"Stipulative definitions can also be proposals to restrict a word's meaning to some specialized sense of a term." "The second type of stipulative definition is a restricting one whereby a person proposes to use an ordinary word in a special, limited, or precise sense." "Notice is usually given to the reader or listener that a key term will be used in an unusual, precise, or specialized way."

E.G.s of Restrictive Stipulative Definitions	Drugs Vehicle Consciousness	"a judge might rule that 'drugs' are 'those substances that produce physiological addiction in the majority of users, and therefore include heroin, cocaine, and tobacco. Television and the internet do not qualify.'"

Handling Restrictive Stipulative Definitions	Not false but Illegitimate or Unacceptable	"Since all stipulative definitions are forewarnings and statements of intent, we can never accuse them of being false they are, after all, simply proposals." "But we can criticize them for being illegitimate." "That is, if someone offers a definition that we cannot accept psychologically, a definition that tries to persuade us to accept a peculiar point of view, then it can be criticized as unacceptable."

E.G. of Criticism of a Restrictive Stipulative Definitions	"For example, it is hard to buy the stipulation that 'when I say "religion" I mean Christianity, and not just Christianity, but Protestantism, and not just Protestantism but the Baptist church'" Wrong? Dismissible distortion?	"A stipulative definition of this kind is not wrong but can be dismissed as unjustified because the meaning of the word 'religion' is distorted for ideological reasons."

Reportive Definitions	"A reportive definition ... gives an explanation of the general meaning a word carries for a group of language users" "Depending on how accurately they reflect actual usage, they can be said to have correct or incorrect definitions" http://www.urbandictionary.com/	"Reportive definitions are a second type [of definition], and here we can judge them right or wrong." "In this kind of definition a description is offered of the conventional meaning of a word, and if the description does not match the actual way that the word is used, then the definition is incorrect." "It is not based on a decision to assign some meaning to a word but is a claim that, in fact, a word is used in a particular way."

Lexical	A dictionary-maker's definition	"Sometimes this type of definition is called 'lexical' because it is the lexicographer's or dictionary-maker's definition." "When we consult a dictionary to find a word's meaning, we expect to find a report of the word's general usage."

Reportive Definition E.G.	Eminent Affect	"For example, we might check a dictionary for the reportive definition of the word ... 'eminent' [which] differs from 'immanent' and 'immanent.' Consulting the dictionary we find that 'eminent' means standing out, whereas something 'imminent' is about to happen, and something immanent' lies within."

Lexicographic Authority	Champagne Err	"Although lexicographers usually report how a word is used, sometimes they take on the role of an authority and tell us how a word should be used." "That is, some dictionaries become gatekeepers of the language and dictate the proper meaning of a word." "People may consult a dictionary for exactly this reason, to decide what meaning a word ought to have." "This legislative function of dictionaries is more prevalent in countries such as France or Germany where there is great sensitivity to the corruption of language."

Lax Lexicographic Authority	Google pwn'd?	"In the United States we are more interested in the dynamic growth of English than in its purity." "when street language becomes prevalent enough, it is incorporated into the dictionary as common usage."

Historical Reports	"sometimes [reportive definitions] will include former usages as explanations of a word's historical meaning"	"These past or archaic sense can provide background interest and shed light on a word's present meaning, however, on should not assume that the original meaning of a word is its real meaning."

E.G.s of Historical Reports	Nice Intentional Empathy	"In the twenty-first century 'nice' means pleasant, in Elizabethan times it means fastidious, in Old French silly, and in Latin ignorant (nescius)."

Trying It Out	IV. 1 IV. 2 IV. 3 V. 2 V. 9 VI. 3 VI. 4

Synonym	In synonym definition, "another word is offered that has approximately the same meaning as the first"	"Synonyms constitute a third type of definition, and here another word is offered that has approximately the same meaning as the first."

Effect Use of Synonyms	Effectiveness depends on audience's vocabulary From the known to the unknown not From the unknown to the unknown	"the synonym must be a word that is understood, otherwise the meaning of the original word will not be clarified." "the effectiveness of a synonym definition depends on the reader's stock in trade; the larger his or her vocabulary, the more effective the synonym is likely to be in the explaining the meaning of a word."

Good v Bad Synonym Definitions	Good: Close Bad: Distant Not At All: Identical	"In [synonym] definitions the word that is presented as synonymous should be as close as possible in meaning to the word that we are trying to define." "No two words will have identical meanings, of course, otherwise they would be the same word and one would drop out of the language as superfluous." "We should aim for a high degree of similarity rather than an identity, and the more nearly equivalent the word is, the better our synonym definition will be." "Synonym definitions can certainly be helpful, but wherever possible they should be used in conjunction with reportive definitions. And of course we should always try to find the synonym that is closest in meaning to the word we are defining."

Synonyms ≠ More Specific Application	"Sometimes what we think is a synonym may be just a more specific application of a word. For example, the word 'carve' translates to several separate words depending on what meat or fish is being carved. This is especially true in Elizabethan usage. A pheasant was allayed, a plover (a shore bird) minced, a hen spoiled, a rabbit unlaced, a crane displayed, a boar leached, a dear broken, a sturgeon tranched, an eel transoned, a lamprey strung, a pigeon thighed, and a porgy splayed" But what do you call it when you carve a hare?

Example Definitions	"Example definitions explain the meaning of a word by mentioning some instances of it"	"In terms of our discussion of extension, [example definitions] explain a meaning by pointing out some of the members of the class." "Once we know the range of things referred to by a term (assuming it is referential), then we have a clearer understanding of its meaning."

Example Definition E.G. Like	Like, OMG!	"In slang when we try to explain something by using 'like,' we are creating mini scenarios to portray our feelings. We might say for example, 'Like, give me a break' or 'I'm like, what's her problem.'"

Ostensive Definition	This!


Pop Quiz	How did I define "ostensive definition" just now?

Ostensive Definition	A presentation of some object (or the like) to which a word applies If it "is a firsthand experience, and no description of characteristics will convey the meaning adequately," then an ostensive definition may be in order	"Sometimes a description of the experiences or a catalog of examples is not enough of an explanation, and we can only show the object, event, or characteristic to which a word applies. Then we have an ostensive definition." "Whether we show part of the extension of a term, describe the experience, or show the object, an example definition can bring home a word's meaning with an immediacy and vividness not found in other types of definitions"

Trying it Out	VII. 4 VII. 9 VIII. 5 VIII. 6 VIII. 9 IX. 6 IX. 10 X. 5


Part Two	Avoiding Definition Mistakes

Standards Needed	Examples from last time: "stipulative definitions must be psychologically acceptable" "reportive definitions must reflect conventional usage."	"In forming sound definitions, whether stipulative, reportive, synonym, or example, certain standards must be met." "These standards make the definition reliable, keep it honest."

Standard: Avoid Circularity	A circular definition usually repeats the defined word in the definition ... ." E.G.: A circular definition is a definition that is circular	"definitions should not be circular. A circular definition usually repeats the defined word in the definition ... ." "To define 'cookbook' as 'a book used to cook' is not very informative."

Conditioned Response E.G.	Conditioned response: "'a response to conditioning'" vs. "'a reflexive, learned reaction to the introduction of given stimuli'"	"it would be informative to define 'conditioned response' as 'a reflexive, learned reaction to the introduction of given stimuli' rather that as 'a response to conditioning;' the first tells us exactly what is involved."

Opium E.G.	"'Opium puts people to sleep because it has dormative powers"

Lectures E.G.	My lectures are boring because they are dull boring: not interesting dull: lack interest

Avoid Circularity in Mutual Definitions	A is defined as B & B is defined as A	"A definition is also circular when it defines two words in terms of each other."

E.G.	"'A cause is that which produces an effect' and ' An effect is that which results from a cause'"	"'up is that which is above down,' and 'down is that which is just below up.'"

Standard: Scope	Definitions must fit and should not Exclude what ought to be included And Include what out to be excluded	Avoid "having definitions that are too broad or two narrow"

Standard: Too Broad	A definition which is too broad is defined as a definition that includes what ought to be excluded	"If our definition is unduly broad it will cover too much, failing to rule out things that are extraneous."

Too Broad E.G.	A lion is defined as a feline Music is defined as sound A brick is defined as a rectangular building material	"to define 'lion' simply as a feline would be too general, letting into the category jaguars, tigers, panthers" "to define 'music' simply as sound would qualify the noise of jackhammers, sirens, and traffic as different kinds of music."

Standard: Too Narrow	A definition which is too narrow is defined as a definition that excludes what ought to be included	"If it is too narrow it will cover too little, excluding things that should be included within the term."

Too Narrow E.G.	"Human beings" are defined as those things that are "'intelligent, self-aware, tool-making, language-using animal with five senses, emotions, movement, and moral, aesthetic, and religious sensibilities'" A brick is a defined as a reddish, rectangular building material made of sun-dried clay	"it would be too narrow and limiting to define 'human being' as 'an intelligent, self-aware, tool-making, language-using animal with five senses, emotions, movement, and moral, aesthetic, and religious sensibilities.'" "By being so detailed, such a definition would exclude the blind ... those who are paralyzed or in a coma; and all fetuses and babies."

Pop-Quiz	Have we been circular with our definitions of "definitions that are too narrow," and "definitions which are too broad?" A definition which is too broad is defined as a definition that includes what ought to be excluded & A definition which is too narrow is defined as a definition that excludes what ought to be included

Standard: Metaphorical Definitions	For those who do not know a word's 'principle meaning,' Metaphorical definitions aren't yet helpful	"In poetic discourse metaphors and similes, images and symbols, are the life blood of the art, but in formulating definitions, where clarity and directness are critical, such language should be avoided." "To those familiar with [terms defined metaphorically], the coloring adds interest, but it will not help anyone who is ignorant of the principle meaning"

Metaphorical E.G.	A home is defined as "'where the heart is'"

Standard: Loaded Definitions	Loaded definitions express "a value judgment and is not just a neutral description of conventional meanings"	"Some definitions are used for persuasive purposes and are charged with positive or negative emotions" "A loaded definition has an 'attitude;' it expresses a value judgment and is not just a neutral description of conventional meanings" "We cannot accept a slanted definition when we are looking for a straight one"

Loaded E.G.	"In the first dictionary, compiled by Samuel Johnson, 'oats' is defined as 'a grain which in England is generally given to horses but in Scotland sustains the people'"

Trying It Out	I. 2 I. 3 I. 5 I. 10 II. (not two, but one definition for each mistake)

Chapter Four: Disagreements, Claims, and Reasons


Part One		Burton F. Porter's The Voice of Reason: Fundamentals of Critical Thinking, Oxford University Press, 2002.

Disagreements	Types of Disagreement: Factual and Verbal Understand that we are here engaged in argument identification First step, isolate disagreements With disagreement isolated, we know what we must support	"the term argument ... [refers to] a structure of reasons given as proof of a claim." "When we maintain a position we must provide justification for it. If we can show that our conclusion follows logically from the premises, then we have supported our position with a sound argument." "before we begin the process of arguing for our claim, we first have to determine what type of disagreement is involved. That is, we have to understand why someone disagrees and the kind of disagreement that is involved. Then we know how to go about defending our position."

Types of Disagreement: Factual and Verbal	Is!/Is Not! (Doch!) vs. Potato/Potato

Factual Disagreement	What is the case? What is not the case?	"In a factual disagreement people differ over whether something is or is not the case. To prove our point we must cite some conclusive evidence from an authoritative source." "We can't assume that people will accept what we say without proof, and individuals can honestly disagree that something is true."

Factual Disagreement E.G.s	The number of civilian deaths since the beginning of the second Iraq war is at least 99,712 No, others say it surpassed 500,000

Resolution	Objective evidence is needed to support claims about facts Credible authorities can supply such facts	"Our argument ... should have concrete facts to back it up." "to resolve these disagreements ... [w]e simply need to present the facts as they are listed in some definitive source such as an atlas, almanac, encyclopedia, textbook, or other reference work." "Once we have consulted accepted authority, we can cite this evidence as proof of our point; it becomes the warrant for our claim."

Difficulties w/ Resolution	But when evidence is hard to find, resolution can be elusive	"Not all factual disagreements are so easily resolved, of course, because sometimes evidence is too difficult to obtain."

Difficulties w/ Resolution E.G.	Global warming

Verbal Disagreements	"A verbal disagreement is another kind of dispute, involving a difference of opinion over what crucial words mean"	"In these cases a clear definition is needed with justification for the meaning we are using." "Verbal disagreements have nothing to do with facts; they are a matter of semantics." "People may be using the same word differently, often without realizing it, and this can lead to miscommunication and pointless conflict."

Verbal Disagreements E.G.s	"You're such a drug addict!" "You smell like a ____."

Some Causes of Verbal Disagreement	"People may have been taught to use a word differently so that the intensional meaning is unusual, or nonnative speakers may have a different extension for the word in their own language"	"a particular word may be extremely vague, so that people draw the circle of its limits differently; or a word may be ambiguous, one persons employing it in one sense, someone else in another." "A verbal disagreement can also arise because of the private connotation a word carries for an individual, the coloration and nuance." "Whatever the cause, the reason for the disagreement is that different meanings are being assigned to the same term."

Resolving Verbal Disagreements	Define your terms! "We must keep in mind the various types of definitions, whether stipulative, reportive, synonym, or example, and use the one appropriate to our subject"	"If we suspect there could be this type of confusion, we need to reveal the different ways we are using words, showing that the opposition to our claim may be linguistic, not factual." "In our argument we need to show how we are defining key words, and argue for particular meanings that are important in our exposition."

Interpretive and Evaluative Disagreements	Deeper problems lurk here

Interpretive Disagreements	"Interpretive disagreements do not concern words but are disputes about how events or actions should be construed, how stories, art, speeches, historical episodes, and so forth should be taken"

Interpretive Disagreements E.G.	"To take an everyday example, suppose that someone you know passes by without saying hello. Should you interpret this as a deliberative snub, that the person 'cut you dead,' or should you assume the person was preoccupied, 'absent-minded?'"

Causes of Interpretive Disagreements	Particular points of view Differing perspectives	"People differ in their interpretations, and fall into argument to support their point of view." "Perhaps because of individual beliefs or circumstances, they may not have the same 'take' on something, may read it differently, or may assign a different significance to it."

Resolving Interpretive Disagreements	"In trying to find the best interpretation of these events, the stand we should us is plausibility. That is, we have to build a case showing that a particular interpretation best explains a situation"	"If the construction makes sense of what we know, providing an adequate explanation, then we assume it is correct." "We must present sound interpretation, marshaling whatever reasons we can find as to how an event should be construed."

Differing Interpretations	Seemingly equally good, but mutually exclusive interpretations They can't both be true (usually)	"Sometimes two interpretations may both seem plausible and defensible. This can happen because in some cases two different ways of viewing things are equally sound." "If the interpretations contradict each other, they cannot both be true." "Although a number of valid interpretations are possible, that does not mean that one person's opinion is as good as another's. Some interpretations will be clearly invalid because the textual evidence does not support them."

Problems w/ Resolving Interpretive Disagreements	In persuasive arguments, interpretational vagueness can be intentional


Evaluative Disagreements	Evaluative disagreements stem from disputants who differ in their "claiming that something should be considered good or bad"	"the evaluative claim ... is the most difficult to prove." "We are trying to prove a judgment about the worth of an action, a purpose, or a goal; a person's character; or even whether some work of art or food or drink is good. Since we know that the other person may not agree, we have to justify our assessment, and that is not easy when it comes to values." "It is when people differ in their value judgements that the disagreement becomes an evaluative one."

Evaluative Disagreements E.G.s	The consumption of drugs is bad


Resolving Evaluative Disagreements	Inconsistencies Consequence Consensus	"Three methods may be used, separately or together, to address an evaluative disagreement."

Resolving Evaluative Disagreements / Inconsistencies	"How can you not like this, you claim to love all things X"	"to show that the opposite position is inconsistent." "describe how the reader would be inconsistent in holding the opposite view."

Resolving Evaluative Disagreements / Consequence	"we can show how our position would lead to good results and the opposite position would have undesirable consequences"	"Another method of approaching an evaluative disagreement is in terms of consequences." "That is, we can show how our position would lead to good results and the opposite position would have undesirable consequences."

Resolving Evaluative Disagreements / Consensus	"An even more positive method of reaching agreement about value judgments is to point to some moral consensus that exists beneath the level of the dispute" "if we can all agree on some basic values that underlie those in dispute, we can build upward from that common ground"

Tying It Out	I. 3 I. 5 I. 6 I. 8 I. 10


Part Two

Reasoning Things Out	Truth and Relevance in Arguments Adequate Truth and Alternative Possibilities

Today's Concepts	"truth: it represents reality accurately" "relevance: it contains pertinent reasons" "adequacy: it provides sufficient proof of our claim" "alternatives: it offers the best possibility we can imagine"	"In constructing a sound argument or in evaluating whether an argument is worth accepting, we must consider four key factors: truth, relevance, adequacy, and alternatives."

Truth	"truth: it represents reality accurately" Pragmatism Coherence Correspondence	"Truth, of course, is an essential ingredient in any sound argument, and insofar as we can, we want to be sure that what we maintain is in fact so." But, "[w]hat mode of proof should be used to establish truth in our argument?"

Pragmatism	"pragmatism ... declares that a state is true if it works" "if we state that something is true we can expect certain practical consequences to follow from it" "If what we anticipate does not occur, then the statement is false"

Pragmatism E.G.s	If I state that "closely following a textbook on logical analysis will be an effective way to teach a course on logical analysis," And it turns out that you learn logical analysis effectively, Then that statement becomes true Likewise, "if we say that belief in god or life after death gives us greater security, hopefulness, and peace, and these feelings do in fact occur, then these beliefs work for us and can be declared true"	"if we say that steel girders will be able to support the weight of a bridge, and they do hold up the bridge, our statement becomes true."

Problems w/ Pragmatism	Problem with the present: "the pragmatist assumes a statement becomes true in the future" Yet, "we ordinarily assume a statement is true or false now, it is only proved true later" Problem with wishful thinking: "we should not believe something because it is comforting, but because it is so"	"this standard of truth has some defects. For one thing, the pragmatist assumes a statement becomes true in the future, whereas we ordinarily assume a statement is true or false now, it is only proved true later." "in areas such as religion, the pragmatic test of truth is too much like wishful thinking." "we should not believe something because it is comforting, but because it is so." "Some truths are happy ones, others are bitter ones, but a statement is not true just because it makes us happy."

Coherence	Something is true is it coheres with other claims What is the moral good?	"The coherence theory is useful when we cannot check the facts directly but must rely on agreement with surrounding information." "This is often the case in arguments about history, mathematics, or anthropology." "Theologians use a coherence standard very frequently in trying to show how religious explanations make sense of the facts we know."

Problems w/ Coherence	"what we can claim may be consistent with other ideas yet be entirely false"

E.G. Problem w/ Coherence	"Some mystics have claimed, for example, that the earth is on the back of a turtle, and that clouds are the turtle's breath, the tides are the sloshing of the seas as he walks, and earthquakes happen when he stumbles" "All of this may be consistent but it is hardly true."	"In other words, we can create a mythical system where all the parts hang together but there is no truth to it whatsoever. We have mutually supportive structure that is a castle in the air."

Correspondence	"a statement is true if it accurately represents reality" "a statement is true if it describes things as they are, if it tells us what is so"	"the most accepted view of truth [heh] is called the correspondence theory. "It maintains that a statement is true if it accurately represents reality. That is, a statement is true if it describes things as they are, if it tells us what is so." "We call say sentence false if it fails to reflects reality, falsifying or distorting what is actually the case." "Truth, according to the correspondence theory, is a straightforward match between a statement and the reality it describes."

Correspondence v. Coherence	"As Bertrand Russell remarked, if we use the standard of correspondence we will be partly right, whereas if we follow coherence we can be entirely wrong"

Correspondence and Formal Reasoning / A Preview	The truth helps Perfect logical format (where a conclusion follows from premises) ≠ Sound argument	"Regardless of how well constructed our argument might be, we want to be sure that what we assert is in agreement with reality, and the best assurance of this comes from the correspondence theory." "As we will see in discussing formal reasoning, the form of an argument may be perfectly correct in the sense that the conclusion follows from the premises, and yet the vital element of truth may be lacking." "When that occurs the argument cannot be presented or accepted, no matter how solid the reasoning behind it."

E.G.	Shaved unicorns shoot deadly rainbow glitter-marshmallow lasers from their horns at students There are shaved unicorns at on campus Therefore, students on campus should be weary of shaved unicorns "Ideally, an argument should have both a logical form and true statements, but certainly truth must be present or the argument is simply not sound"	"we could argue that cannibals are especially fond of missionaries, and cannibals are found in Iceland and Greenland, therefore missionaries should be careful to avoid those countries." "The logic [formal reasoning] here is impeccable given the initial assumptions, but none of these assumptions happens to be true." "Missionaries are not the food of choice for cannibals, and there are no cannibals in Iceland or Greenland. The argument is therefore nonsense."

Relevance	Relevance "refers to whether the reasons or evidence apply to our conclusion" True justification ≠ relevant justification	"A further factor in proving our claim is relevance, which refers to whether the reasons or evidence apply to our conclusion." "That is, even if we offer a justification that is true, we must also be sure it is pertinent or germane;" "if it does not bear upon the case, or is beside the point, then our argument is defective."

E.G.s of Irrelevance	He is a good knitter because he has a good ear for music. Here, "the reasons we give are irrelevant to the claim they are supposed to support."	"Ashley is a good singer because she is left-handed."

Problems w/ Relevance	Determining relevance can be quite difficult	"Sometimes it is difficult to know when something is relevant." "We may understand the reasons must be relevant to claims, but not be sure whether a particular factor is relevant."

E.G. Problem w/ Relevance	Should race relevant in school admission decisions? On the one hand, there is the idea that students should be admitted on the merits of their abilities alone On the other hand, there is the idea that racial discrimination, at least in part, hampers those who are discriminated against from attaining equal education	"The debate over affirmative action, for instance, turns on the question of whether a candidate's race is a relevant consideration in hiring, school admission, awarding government contracts, and so forth." "We might argue that race is an irrelevant factor, that decision-makers should be colorblind and consider only the candidate's qualifications." "Or we might consider race a relevant factor since minorities are not starting even." "Then we could endorse affirmative action, not just equal opportunity."

Answers w/ Relevance	"The fact of twilight does not make it impossible to differentiate night and day"	"Although we are sometimes unsure whether a reason is relevant, that does not mean we can never decide." "We can usually figure out when some factor is beside the point and when it is acceptable."

Adequacy	How much evidence is needed? As much as possible, within reason	"Once we know that our evidence is true and relevant, another consideration is whether it is adequate to prove our point." "Obviously we can never provide all of the evidence possible, but the reasons we offer should be sufficient to our claim."

Inadequate	Inadequate evidence when, "the base is much too narrow to support the conclusion"

E.G.s of Inadequate Proof	"Sometimes we hear people claim that there's no link between smoking and cancer because an uncle or grandfather smoked three packs a day and lived to age 94"	"we would be on very shaky ground if we argued in favor of belief in the occult because a fortuneteller's predictions once came true."

Adequacy ≠ Relevance	"In the case of smoking, our uncle's longevity certainly applies to our claim, but it's just not enough to warrant it. We would need a lot more evidence before anyone would be convinced"	"Notice the difference between relevance and adequacy; the two are easily confused." "In the argument about the occult, the fact that the prediction of a fortuneteller came true is relevant to belief in the occult; the problem is that it is not adequate to support the claim."

Generalizations & Exceptions	Singular instances of a contradictory occurrence are usually inadequate to disprove a generalization The opposite is the case: exceptions can show the generalization to be accurate	"One other point should be noted about adequacy: one instance is rarely adequate to prove a point or to disprove it. A physical law might be overturned by a contrary instance, but generalizations are actually strengthened by an exception." "if we have a general principle in economics, say that people buy less of a product as its price increases, the generalization would be strengthened if we found some contrary cases. Here the exception proves the rule because, by and large, the generalization holds true."

So Far	"the overall point [so far] is that in our arguments we need evidence that is adequate to prove our case as well as evidence that is true and relevant"

Alternatives	Arguments for one procedure that may work can nevertheless not be desirable, especially when there are alternative ways of proceeding that also work	"we ought to choose the best alternative we can imagine. If another, superior option is possible, we should endorse it just as we should reject any argument if we can see a better possibility."

	"No one would doubt that the guillotine is an infallible remedy for migraines headaches. It would certainly be effective, but at too high a price" "although an action may work, that does not mean it is the best way of solving a problem"

Alternatives E.G.	Argument to cut costs in a large manufacturing firm Action: Lay off "older, higher salaried employees whose productivity is decreasing" Argument: Saves money Increases competitive edge Not a charity anywho	"suppose we are asked to write a business paper assessing a decision to increase profits by laying off older, higher salaried employees whose productivity is decreasing. We might be tempted to argue in favor this action, for business firms need the best qualified people in order to compete successfully. They are not charitable institutions but practical, hard-nosed organizations concerned with growth and profit; otherwise they will be out of business."
	Alternatively, Action: Incentivize early retirement, or offer half-time contracts Argument: Money can be saved by other means Loss of "most experienced" will affect others' loyalty, commitment, and morale Loss of institutional knowledge	"However, we might want to make a case for more humane and effective alternatives such as early retirement packages, moving the employees laterally, giving them half-time contracts, or retaining them for new high-tech jobs. We might even want to argue for increasing profits by other means such as diversifying or developing overseas markets. Losing the most experienced employees might actually be counterproductive, affecting the loyalty and commitment of other personnel and lowering general morale in the company. In addition, significant knowledge and experience would be lost if long-service employees were replaced with younger ones."
	"Even if firing older employees would be effective, it may not be the best policy" Again, "although an action may work, that does not mean it is the best way of solving a problem"	"Considering these factors, we might want to argue against the management decision because we can see the superiority of other alternatives. Even if firing older employees would be effective, it may not be the best policy. We must bear in mind that although an action may work, that does not mean it is the best way of solving a problem."

Chapter Five: Common Mistakes in Thinking


		Burton F. Porter's The Voice of Reason: Fundamentals of Critical Thinking, Oxford University Press, 2002.

Argument to the Person	"In this fallacy an attack is made on the person presenting the argument rather than on the argument itself." So as to overcome an opposing argument, attack the opponent instead of the opponent's argument.	"The first informal fallacy is the argument to the person." "The Latin name, argumentum ad hominem, is probably the most commonly used of the Latin words in logic, and sometimes it appears simply as ad hominem." "The character credentials, reputation, position, or office of the individual is called into question instead of the soundness of this or her claim." "the arguer is criticized instead of the argument; the messenger is confused with the message, the salesperson with the product."

Argument to the Person / Personal	"In the personal form ... the character or behavior of the person is discredited."

Argument to the Person / Personal E.G.s	"Freud was probably addicted to cocaine, but to use this as a way of disproving the worth of psychoanalysis is as irrelevant as discounting the formula e = mc² because Einstein was an atheist." We shouldn't dismiss Heidegger's notion of being-in-the-world because he was a card carrying Nazi. We shouldn't abandon Frege's Begriffsschrift because he endorsed national socialism before his death, or because he was one of Hitler's fanboys.

Argument to the Person / Circumstantial	"In the circumstantial form of ad hominem, the person's position is cited as the reason to disregard what he or she claims." So as to overcome an opposing argument, attack the opponent's position instead of the opponent's argument.

Argument to the Person / Circumstantial E.G.	"Never ask a barber whether you need a haircut."	"The specific mistake here ... is to presuppose that people always act for their own advantage and because of their position, and that does not seem fair." "Because people have something to gain, that does not mean they are acting in order to gain something." "We cannot even dismiss an argument by exposing some low motive of the person presenting it, since people can say or do the right thing for the wrong reasons."

Argument to the Person / Circumstantial / You Yourself	"Here an argument is discredited because the person does not practice what he preaches."	"A variety of the fallacy of ad hominem circumstantial is called tu quoquo or 'you yourself.'"

Argument to the Person / Circumstantial / Smear Tactics	Irrelevant facts about a person are used to attack a person's qualifications.	"we call it 'smear tactics' when irrelevant facts about a person's background are used to attack a person's political position or qualifications for public office. The fact that a woman may be divorced or a lesbian, for example, does not seem relevant to whether she would make a good legislator."

Argument to the Person / Circumstantial / Relevance	"This does not mean, of course, that questions about a person's behavior or position are always beside the point."

Argument to the Person / Biographical Fallacy	"judging the worth of literary work in terms of the life or character of the author."	"the argument to the person has its counterpart in the biological fallacy in literature." "Here the mistake consists in judging the worth of literary work in terms of the life or character of the author."

Argument to the Person / Genetic Fallacy	"the genetic fallacy ... refers to the attempt to explain away a chain of claims by referring to the source."	"the source of an idea is irrelevant to its truth–we should not try to discredit an argument by discrediting the person who presents it."

Argument from Authority	"the argument from authority (ipse dixit argument) ... [is a fallacy that is] committed whenever we argue for some point, not because it is well grounded in fact or logic but because of the authority of the person who presented it." Instead of supporting an argument with evidence, authority is cited as evidence	"The standing or prestige of a recognized authority is said to guarantee the truth of the claim, and anyone who doubts it is make to feel presumptuous or egotistical." "In some ways this fallacy is the mirror image of the argument to the person. Rather than dismissing a position because of the person who advocates it, in the argument from authority one accepts a position because the person advocating it. Here too the messenger is confused with the message, the singer with the song."

Responsibly Appealing to Authority	"When we cite an authority in an argument we must always show why the person's opinion should be accepted, what definitive proof he or she has to offer."	"an idea does not become true simply because an authority says so; the person must have good reason to say so." "If we accept people as authorities it is because we have confidence that they support their insights with good thinking and good evidence." "Furthermore, the evidence should be publicly verifiable, whether in the form of reproducible experiments or rational reasons that anyone can consider."

Authority at What?	Authority in war ≠ authority in politics Authority in acting ≠ authority in animal rights	"A wider problem with the argument from authority is it suggests that an authority in one field is also an authority in another." "The point is that we cannot assume that someone who possesses expertise in one field must be an expert in everything."

Argument from Force	"In many ways the argument from force is not an argument at all but the absence of an argument, for the opponent is frightened into agreeing with some position."	"the argument from force (argumentum ad baculum, bacuculum meaning 'stick')." "It amounts to holding a gun to someone's head and saying, 'I trust you will see the force of my argument.'"

Appeal to Pity	"Here we play on the sympathy of others in order to get them to agree with us."	"the appeal to pity (argumentum ad misericordiam)." "The technique involves distracting attention from the substance of the issue by evoking feelings of compassion."

Appeal to Pity / Courts E.G.	In courts	"This device is used extensively in courts by defense attorneys who want to judge or jury to feel sorry for their clients and want to deflect attention from whether the clients are guilty or innocent."

Appeal to Pity / Grading E.G.	"As a student you may have used the argument from pity at one time or another. You may have asked for a higher grade on an exam, arguing that you had studied hard but were emotionally upset or swamped with work. You might have said that you have a twenty hour a week job, your car broke down, you were sick with the flue, or that you are having trouble with your parents." "Under such circumstances a sympathetic professor might allow you additional time to do the work or even let you retake the exam, but if the professor were to raise your grade on those grounds he or she would not be acting in a professional way. A higher grade would indicate that you had mastered the material to a greater degree than you actually did, thereby giving a false impression to anyone reading your transcript. Your grade should reflect your actual level of achievement, not how much sympathy the professor felt for you."

Relevant	"sometimes sympathy can be a relevant consideration."

Trying it Out	II. 2 II. 4 II. 7


Straw Person Fallacy	"straw person, the mistake of attributing to your opponents a ridiculous position they do not hold and that is easily knocked down like a person made of straw." Notice the steps involved.	"By exaggerating, oversimplifying, or distorting the other person's view, you set up an easy target." "This absurd position, not the other person's actual one, is then refuted by showing how ludicrous it is."

Straw Person Welfare E.G.	"An opponent of welfare might argue, 'I am as generous and sympathetic as the next person, but if you want to give handouts to lazy teenage mothers with four kids who are getting rich on welfare payments contributed by decent, hard-working taxpayers, then I'm afraid I cannot go along with it."	"A moment's reflection will show that a straw person is being set up. Those who support welfare programs do not sanction abuses of the system, and welfare recipients do not become wealthy from their government checks." "Obviously, welfare payments should be made to the deserving poor, that is, to those unable to support themselves, not to those unwilling to work. Welfare provide temporary assistance to people who are critically in need of help while they try to become self-supporting." "The system has had numerous problems, but to present it as a way for freeloaders to become rich is a distortion."

Handling Straw Person Fallacy	"Whenever an opponent's position is described in a way that makes it ludicrous and indefensible, we know that the fallacy has been committed." [Really?]	"Once we are aware of the fallacy, straw person is easily identified."

Poisoning the Well	"Here one side in an argument is placed in a position where it cannot refute the other without discrediting itself."	"poisoning the well. Here one side in an argument is placed in a position where it cannot refute the other without discrediting itself." "This is done by making the position as undesirable one for any rational or decent person to hold." "The well out of which they must drink has been poisoned to maintain the argument would be shameful or illogical because the way it has been represented."

Poisoning the Well / Against Pro-Choice E.G.	"'Women who support abortion on demand are selfish and godless people. They put their own needs above everything and everyone else, and reject the divine gift of a child's life.'"	"Since most women would not want to be regarded as selfish and godless, they might abandon the argument for abortion on demand."

Poisoning the Well / Against Pro-Life E.G.	"'The right of a woman to have an abortion, to do with her body as she pleases, is opposed only by reactionary men who want to keep in women in their traditional roles. Every right-thinking person knows this to be true.'"	"At that point any man who believes otherwise is reluctant to oppose abortion for fear of being regarded as a reactionary male and not a right-thinking person."

Poisoning the Well / Divorce E.G.	"If a couple is quarreling the husband might say, 'I find you so defensive, and your constant denials that you are defensive only prove my point.'"	"It is impossible then for the woman to defend herself, since that would only confirm the defensiveness."

Poisoning the Well / Commercial E.G.	"'When you care enough to send the very best.'"

Handling Poisoning the Well	"To combat it we must reject the very form in which the issue is presented because it invalidates all opposing views." "We have to point out how the system is rigged because the opposing view has been unfairly discredited."	"In arguments, if we come across the ploy of poisoning the well we should expose it for what it is: an attempt to place anyone who disagrees in an impossible position."

Slippery Slope	"thinking that if we take one step along a certain path then nothing can stop us from sliding inevitably to our ruin."	"In the slippery slope fallacy we make the mistake of thinking that if we take one step along a certain path then nothing can stop us from sliding inevitably to our ruin." "That is, once we set foot on the slippery slope we are bound to end up in disaster."

Slippery Slope qua Domino Effect		"Sometimes the fallacy of the slippery slope is described as the 'domino effect:' a slight push on one domino will topple the others and set a whole train of events in motion."

Slippery Slope qua Edge 'o the Wedge		"The English often refer to 'the thin edge of the wedge,' which suggests that once we allow an opening this will push to some greater, undesirable result."

Slippery Slope / Exceptions E.G.	Imagine an over-crowded Amtrak train that lets off about 50 passengers in Fullerton, but then refuses to allow other passengers on because the train is still over-crowded. Now imagine that someone is begging to be let on, so that she put a horrible day to an end and return to her home-alone child. She's been to a funeral, and just wants to get home. Now imagine the Conductor says, "no, I can't let you on, as I'd then have to let everybody on." Now imagine someone already on board the train hears all of this and volunteers to trade places with the person pleading (in tears) to come on board. Now imagine the Conductor says, "no, I can't let her on, as I'd then have to let everybody on." Now imagine the volunteer calmly says, "no, you can tell others that this woman was returning from a funeral and was headed to her home-alone child–and someone volunteered to give up space for her." Now imagine the Conductor says, "no I have to follow the rules here."	"Bureaucrats commit a common example of the slippery slope fallacy when they say, 'I would like to help you but if I make an exception for you I will have to make an exception for everyone else. Maybe in your situation there are extenuating circumstances but it is better to stick to the rules, otherwise everybody will claim they're a special case.'" "The fallacy, of course, is to assume that once you initiate a course of action it is unstoppable. In fact, that is rarely true. In the case of the bureaucrat, there is little likelihood of a rush to break the rules." "Chances are that few exceptions could be made but the rule would still hold. That does not mean rules are made to be broken but that it is possible to break rules without destroying them." "Very few rules are without legitimate exceptions, so if bureaucrats insist on absolute rules, they are bound to commit injustices." "Of course, anyone who claims an exception has the burden of proof to show why the exception should be made."

Gambler's Fallacy	"Each time a person enters a new lottery he or she has the same chance, not an increased chance, and to think otherwise is the gambler's fallacy."	"The gambler's fallacy is another important mistake to notice because it can trap people in a cycle of hope and depression." "Those who gamble do so in the hope that they will get lucky at some game of chance ... that their number will come up." "But the odds are always with the house ... so the steady gambler is a steady loser."

Gambler's Fallacy / "Maturity 'o Chances"	"A person playing roulette, for example, will wait to see which number has not come up in one hundred or two hundred spins of the wheel. Then he or she will bet on that number on the assumption that, according to statistical probability, the roulette ball is due to falling that numbered compartment."	"The gambler's fallacy is one of the factors that keeps people gambling, and it is usually described in terms of 'the maturity of the chances.' A person playing roulette, for example, will wait to see which number has not come up in one hundred or two hundred spins of the wheel. Then he or she will bet on that number on the assumption that, according to statistical probability, the roulette ball is due to falling that numbered compartment."

	"at each turn of the wheel, each number has an equal chance of being chosen."	"In roulette, the probability of a player picking the winning number is 1 in 37, and the same odds apply each time the croupier spins the wheel." "The fact that a number has not appeared recently does not mean that the odds of it coming up are any greater."

		"Some person has to win, so from the point of view of the promoters of the lottery, someone's name will come up as the holder of the winning ticket, and that is hardly miraculous." "Put somewhat differently, no matter what happens, the odds against that thing happening rather than something else are always enormous. Whatever occurs, therefore, can always be viewed as an amazing coincidence when, in fact, it is just an even, no more or less remarkable than any other. It only takes on significance if you happen to be the person who coincidentally wins the game."

Chapter Six: More Subtle Errors of Thought


		Burton F. Porter's The Voice of Reason: Fundamentals of Critical Thinking, Oxford University Press, 2002.

Fallacy of Sweeping Generalization	"The informal fallacy of sweeping generalization consists of using one statement in an all-inclusive way without allowing for any exceptions."	"That is, if we make some blanket generalization about all members of a category, it is usually too broad to be true." "Sweeping generalizations are presented 'simpliciter,' that is, without qualification, when few general statements cover every case."

Fallacy of Sweeping Generalization E.G.	Lying is never a good option. Nobody likes pain.	"Even though we have a moral obligation to tell the truth, that does not mean we should never lie. If a man ran up to us with a smoking gun in his hand and asked, 'which way did my wife go?,' we should send him off in the wrong direction. In this situation we have a responsibility to lie, and to lie as well as we can. Truth telling in general is a virtue but our moral obligation to tell the truth is not an absolute one."

Fallacy of Sweeping Generalization / Accident	"Here the qualities that apply to the whole are assumed to apply to the parts, without allowing for the "accidental" circumstances that make it inapplicable." From whole to parts "But what is true of the whole may not be true of the parts"	"A second form of this fallacy, sometimes referred to as an accident, is more difficult to detect." "The mistake is to think that the members of the class must have the same characteristics as the class itself, that the subset has identical qualities with the set." "the whole may be less or more than the sum of its parts."

Fallacy of Sweeping Generalization / Accident E.G.	"if the United States consumes more pasta than Italy, that does not imply that each American eats more pasta than each Italian does." "Salt is necessary for life! So make sure to consume some sodium, and make sure to consume some chlorine.	"If we see a farm truck full of straw we know the load is heavy but we should not conclude that each straw is heavy."

Fallacy of Sweeping Generalization / Hasty Generalization	"the fallacy of making a broad generalization on the basis of insufficient number of instances."	"Hasty generalization is the mirror image of sweeping generalization." "In other words, a hasty conclusion is drawn without enough evidence to support it. Since the base is too narrow, the generalization cannot stand up."

Hasty Generalization E.G.	"Whenever you are inclined to say, 'if you've seen one, you've seen them all,' we are probably leaping to conclusions."

Fallacy of Sweeping Generalization / Converse Accident	"Here it is erroneously assumed that what's true of the parts is true of the whole when, in fact, new factors may arise when a group is formed, giving it different characteristics."	"A second version of the fallacy is called converse accident–the counterpart to accident."

Fallacy of Sweeping Generalization / Converse Accident E.G.	"since Italians as individuals eat more past than Americans, Italy consumes more pasta than the United States." "Don't put salt on your food! Don't you know that sodium can be explosive, and chlorine is poisonous!?!"	"We make this mistake if we argue that since straw is light, a load of straws will be light"

Accident & Converse-Accident	"Often the characteristics of the group and those of its members do not coincide."

Trying it Out	IV. 1 IV. 2 IV. 4

Begging the Question	"The fallacy of begging the question is a circular argument in which we already assume the point we are trying to prove."	"One 'begs' the other person to grant some conclusion at the very beginning of the argument." "Question begging is often found when key definitions go round in circles." "Instead of giving a reason, the initial assertion is repeated."

Begging the Question E.G.	"A well-known modern illustration of begging the question in Joseph Heller's book Catch 22. In this book the main character says, 'Let me get this straight. In order to be grounded I have to be crazy. And I must be crazy to keep flying. But if I ask to be grounded that means I'm not crazy and I have to keep flying.' Obviously this is a circular argument that produces a double bind." Is this an example? "A second version of the fallacy is called converse accident–the counterpart to accident." Why or why not?	"'Salt dissolves in water because it is soluble.'"

Complex Question / Take One	"when a single question actually contains several others, so that answering one question entails a number of different admissions."	"A sister fallacy goes by the name of complex question, and it occurs when a single question actually contains several others, so that answering one question entails a number of different admissions." A complex question "hides the fact that more than one question is involved."

Complex Question / Take One E.G.	"The most famous example is that of the prosecutor who asks, 'Have you stopped beating your wife?'" "If the accused person answer 'yes,' he is admitting that he beat his wife before." "If he says 'No,' that means his continuing to beat her." "The hidden and prior question is whether he ever beat his wife at all." "If the accused person tries to raise this objection he may be criticized for quibbling and trickiness or making fine distinctions, evading the issue." "The prosecutor may insist that he 'just answer the question, yes or no,' but a simple yes or no would be self-incriminating either way."

Complex Question / Take Two	"when a question has two parts and we are asked to respond to both with a single answer."	"Another form of this fallacy is when a question has two parts and we are asked to respond to both with a single answer."

Complex Question / Take Two E.G.	Aren't fanged unicorns fascinating and cuddly?	"For example, 'Wasn't that film romantic and sad?' We might think it was romantic but not sad or vice versa, but we are forced to accept or reject the statement as a whole."

Handling A Complex Question	"We must take the questions one at a time, and refuse to answer the second until we settle the first one that it depends on."	"To defend ourselves against complex questions we need to reject the terms of the question, because the way it is framed and makes a fair consideration impossible." "Before we commit ourselves to an answer we must challenge the assumptions behind the question." "If the cards are stacked against us, we must refuse to play the game."

Trying it Out	IV. 3 IV. 6 VII. 3 VII. 4 VIII. 3


Argument from Ignorance	"The argument from ignorance (argumentum ad ignorantiam)" assumes "that a statement is true because it has not been proven false, or that it is false because no one has proven it true." "In technical terms, we cannot start with negative premises and reach any positive conclusions;" "beginning with 'I don't know' we cannot end up with 'Therefore, I know.'" "it is a fallacy to believe that what we don't know can be used as an argument for or against some conclusion."	"the fact that something has not been proven false dos not mean we should believe it to be true." "for an idea to be believed we must establish grounds for believing it." "Claims cannot be accepted by default, that is, because they have not been disproved."

Argument from Ignorance / Converse	"Conversely, we cannot assume a position is false because no one knows 'for sure' that it is true." "To reject a position we must disprove it, not just call it wrong in the absence of proof that it is right."

Argument from Ignorance / Converse E.G.	"For example, it would be a mistake to argue that the theory of evolution is incorrect because biologists have not proven it beyond all doubt."

Argument from Ignorance / Absence of Proof	"the absence of proof is not in itself disproof, any more than the absence of disproof can be taken as proof." "We cannot claim that angels do not exist because no one has shown that they do."	"We cannot assume that iron is the element that combines with copper to make brass because we personally don't know that it doesn't (in fact, the element is zinc)."

	"In short, ignorance proves nothing."	"the mistake made by the argument from ignorance is to assume that a positive or a negative position can be accepted because the opposite has not been established." "The only conclusion we can draw from the fact that we do not know something is that we do not know it." "if we are ignorant we cannot say that, on those grounds, we have knowledge."

Argument from Ignorance

Exception

"In law, for example, when a person is accused of a crime, the person is presumed innocent until proven guilty, sometimes 'beyond a shadow of a doubt.'"

"The lack of proof of a person's guilt is taken to mean the person is not guilty."

"Although the argument from ignorance is generally a defect in reasoning, some exceptions should be noted."

"That is, a verdict of innocent is reached on the basis of ignorance."


Argument to the Masses	"The argument to the masses (argumentum ad populum) makes an emotional appeal to the general public emphasizing our basic heritage, the deeply held attitudes and symbols of our society."	"When people's prejudices are incited they respond in an unthinking way, and they are prone to agree with whatever is presented. The argument to the masses succeeds by appealing to our unreflective feelings and emphasizing the biases we all share."

Argument to the Masses / Psychological Appeal	"On a psychological level the argument appeals to our desire to belong, to be part of a group with values and beliefs in common."	"To think differently than the majority is made to appear conceited, as if we know better than everybody else does." "To deviate could indicate we are a deviant, someone different who should be avoided."

Argument to the Masses / E.G.	"'We're all loyal Americans here, and we know how many young lives have been lost fighting to safeguard our freedom. If we have any respect for this great country or ours and for those who made the supreme sacrifice, we must vote against federal regulations that limit our rights as free citizens. All real patriots must join me in opposing this encroachment on our hard-won liberties.'"


Dadisms	"Proverbs, adages, and old saws are often used to persuade us to accept ideas we might otherwise reject." "The implication is that these truths are basic and self-evident, and we would be foolish to go against tried and true knowledge."		"We are told that 'Haste makes waste,' so its best not to work too quickly, or 'Spare the rod and spoil the child,' so we should not worry about beating our children; it's good for them." "Proverbs are often used to persuade people of a position, arguing, in effect that we cannot doubt the wisdom of the ages." "Few people stop to think that this wisdom is inconsistent, and that one supposedly timeless truth cancels out another." "What is called self-evident may be evident only to oneself."

Dadisms / E.G.s	"On the one hand" "Look before you leap" "Many hands make light work" "Better safe than sorry" "If it's not broken, don't fix it" "You can't teach an old dog new tricks" "Out of sight, out of mind"	"But on the other hand" "He who hesitates is lost" "Too many cooks spoil the broth" "Nothing ventured, nothing gain" "A stitch in time saves nine" "It's never too late to learn" "Absence makes the heart gr ow fonder (Familiarity breeds contempt)"	"One of the major problems with proverbs, of course, is that they often contradict each other" "One tip-off that we are being persuaded by an argument to the masses is the clichéd expressions are being used."


Bandwagon	"Sometimes the argument to the masses is called the 'bandwagon' technique, especially when everyone is urged to go along with the crowd."

Bandwagon / Problem	"We cannot establish truth by counting heads or taking polls." "This is the fatal flaw in the bandwagon approach and in the argument to the masses in general."


False Cause	"incorrectly identifying one event as causing another, that is compelling it to happen again." "The usual form of this fallacy is to think that because one occurrence precedes another, the first must be the cause of the second." "An unrelated sequence of events is confused with a cause-effect relationship."	"This type of mistake sometimes goes by its Latin name post hoc ergo propter hoc, which translates to 'after this, therefore because of this.'" "an earlier event is incorrectly thought to have caused the later one."

False Cause Humorous E.G.s	"Most people today do not die at home but rather in a hospital; however, this does not mean that hospitals are responsible for people's deaths." "Such reasoning is faulty as thinking that since people usually die in bed, the way to avoid death is to sleep on the couch." "Obviously, beds do not cause death even though people may die after taking to their beds."	"the cause of divorce is marriage because it always precedes it" "The clearest examples of this fallacy can be seen in magical and associative thinking. If an Indian (sic.) tribe does a rain dance and it rains the next day, the rain is probably not due to the dance." Probably?!?


False Cause Serious E.G.	"A very destructive mistake about causation was made in the 1930's. A Dr. Manfred Sakel developed a successful treatment for schizophrenics that involved large doses of insulin, which produced convulsions. Other psychiatrists then tried to duplicate the convulsions using electric shock treatments, but their patients actually deteriorated. Their mistake was to assume that the convulsions were the reason for the cure, when in fact they were only a side effect. The treatment worked because the insulin restored the patients' chemical balance."

Irrelevant Conclusion	"Irrelevant conclusion ... is a generic or catchall category, and simply means that the conclusion of an argument does not follow from the premises offered for it." "Sometimes it is called a non sequitur, meaning simply that the conclusion does not follow." "the conclusion is irrelevant to the premises."	"Differently stated, it is the fallacy of not having reasons that even apply to a claim, much less prove it." "When reasoning is thoughtless, careless, or absurd, when the claim is not supported by the warrant, then we know the fallacy of irrelevant conclusion has been committed."

Resonance	"The fallacy of irrelevant conclusion can include a number of the fallacies already described." Argument to the person Argument from authority Appeal to pity Straw person Begging the question Gambler's fallacy Argument from ignorance Argument to the masses False cause	"The fallacy of irrelevant conclusion can include a number of the fallacies already described." "The argument to the person and from authority, the appeal to pity, straw person, begging the question, the gambler's fallacy, the argument from ignorance and to the masses, as well as false cause, can all be lumped together under 'irrelevant conclusion.'"

Irrelevant Conclusion E.G.	1) Cleanly shaven, fanged unicorns haunt the internet 2) I was house-trained before I was potty-trained Therefore 3) You'll do well on today's logic quiz	"'All pheasants are birds, and peacocks drink milk, therefore nothing can be done about unemployment.'"

Trying it Out	IV. 1-5

Chapter Seven: Reasoning in a Formal Way


The Structure of an Argument	Premises supporting conclusions Warrants supporting claims					Burton F. Porter's The Voice of Reason: Fundamentals of Critical Thinking, Oxford University Press, 2002.

Indicator Words	Differentiating premises from conclusions, and warrants from claims can sometimes be tricky Indicator words make such differentiations easier					"we can find help by looking for 'indicator words' that point to the conclusion or to the premises." "These words can almost always be relied upon as signals, telling us which statements are which in the argument."

Premise/Warrant Indicator Words	since			inasmuch as
	because			for the reasons that
	for			in view of the fact
	whereas			as evidenced by

Conclusion/Claim Indicator Words	consequently			we can conclude that
	therefore			it follows that
	thus			we may infer that
	so			this means that
	hence			it leads us to believe that
	accordingly			this bears our the point that

E.G. of the Difference	"Television presents a continuous display of violence in graphically explicit and extreme forms. It also depicts sexuality not as a physical expression of internal love but in its most lewd forms and obscene manifestations. We must conclude, therefore, that television contributes to the moral corruption of individuals exposed to it." Claim/Conclusion: "television contributes to the moral corruption of individuals exposed to it." Warrant/Premise: "Television presents a continuous display of violence in graphically explicit and extreme forms." Warrant/Premise: Television "also depicts sexuality not as a physical expression of internal love but in its most lewd forms and obscene manifestations."

Judging Arguments	Analyzing arguments into their parts facilitates our judging those arguments					"Having separated the two, we can then decide whether the case has been made for the conclusion." "Whether or not we agree with the position we must first identify the logic of the argument to test its soundness."

Soundness	"the logic is not sound," "if the conclusion does not strictly follow from the premises"					"to test the soundness of an argument we need to see the difference between a conclusion and a premise, a claim and its warrant."

Testing the E.G.	"Has the writer shown that television does corrupt society?" "Doesn't TV refine and educate people in some of its programming?" "Has a causal link been shown between the depiction of gross sexuality and the deterioration of morals?" "Does TV promote violence in our culture or merely reflect it?" "And when can we say that sex is lewd and obscene?"

Good Advice	"In writing an essay, we should summarize our argument in the introduction and articulate the structure so the reader is prepared for our exposition." "Then we can develop the argument in the body of our essay, clearly indicating what we are arguing for and why we are arguing it."

Logical Translations / Paraphrasing	Formalizing statements facilitates our testing for soundness "The process of casting sentences that we find in a text into one of these four forms is technically called paraphrasing"					"the sentences that comprise [premises or conclusions, etc.] must be cast in a certain mold in order to be handled logically." "in formal reasoning the statements that contain our premises and conclusions have to be rendered in a strict form so that we know exactly what is being claimed."

Quality / Affirmative or Negative	"in this process of paraphrasing we designate the affirmative or negative quality of a statement principally by using words 'no' or 'not.'"

Quantity / All of a Class or Part of a Class	"We indicate quantity, meaning whether we are referring to the entire class or only a portion of it, by using the words 'all' or 'some.'" And something to memorize: all entails some, but some does not entail all

Copula / Is or Are	"In addition, we must render the subject and the predicate as classes of objects with the verb 'is' or 'are' as the copula joining two halves."

Target Forms	The target in paraphrasing is to render statements into one of our different logical forms					"every written statement can be translated into one of these four forms."

Logical Forms of Statements	(A)			All X is Y.
	(E)			No X is Y.
	(I)			Some X is Y.
	(O)			Some X is not Y.

Logical Forms of Statements E.G.	(A)			All unicorns are gauche creatures.
	(E)			No unicorn is a gauche creature.
	(I)			Some unicorns are gauche creatures.
	(O)			Some unicorns are not gauche creatures.

The Trick	"the main trick is to translate sentences into statements covering all or some, none or not, and to use language that designates categories or classes of objects."

Paraphrasing E.G.s	Original:			Paraphrase:
	"Cats have a quiet tread (flannel-footed)."			"All cats are creatures with a quiet tread (flannel-footed)."
	"Several houses were damaged by the hurricane."			"Some houses are structures damaged by the hurricane."
	"All men are not preoccupied with sports."			"Some men are people preoccupied with sports."
	"No one need fear justice who is innocent of any crime."			"No person who is innocent of any crime is a person who need fear justice."

Implications	Once rendered into logical form, it becomes easier to see what does and does not follow

(A)	If (A) is true	All unicorns are gauche creatures.			If (A) is false
	(E) is false	No unicorns are gauche creatures.			(E) is undetermined è	If (A) is true, then (E) is false: if all unicorns are gauche, then, easily, we can't say that none are. If (A) is false, then (E) is undetermined: if it is false that all unicorns are gauche, that doesn't mean that there could be at least one gauche one lurking out there–but, it could also be the case that there are in fact no gauche unicorns.
	(I) is true	Some unicorns are gauche creatures.			(I) is undetermined è	If (A) is true, then (I) is true: if all unicorns are gauche, then surely some are. If (A) is false, then (I) is undetermined: if it is false that all unicorns are gauche, that doesn't mean that there could be at least one gauche one lurking out there–but, it could also be the case that there are in fact no gauche unicorns.
	(O) is false	Some unicorns are not gauche creatures.			(O) is true è	If (A) is true, then (O) is false: if all unicorns are gauche, then it can't be the case that there are still, at the same time, some that are not gauche. If (A) is false, then (O) is true: if it is false that all unicorns are gauche, then of course there are some that are not gauche creatures.

(E)	If (E) is true	No unicorns are gauche creatures.			If (E) is false
	(A) is false	All Unicorns are gauche creatures.			(A) is undetermined è	If (E) is true, then (A) is false: if no unicorns are gauche, then the exact opposite cannot be true too. If (E) is false, then (A) is undetermined: if it is not the case that there are no gauche unicorns, then it could be the case that there are some gauche unicorns, but it could also be the case that all unicorns are gauche.
	(I) is false	Some unicorns are gauche creatures.			(I) is true è	If (E) is true, then (I) is false: if no unicorns are gauche, then, then some unicorns can't be gauche. If (E) is false, then (I) is true: if it is not the case that there are no gauche unicorns, then surely there are some gauche unicorns.
	(O) is true	Some unicorns are not gauche creatures.			(O) is undetermined è	If (E) is true, then (O) is true: if no unicorns are gauche, then surely some are. If (E) is false, then (O) is undetermined: if it is not the case that there are no gauche unicorns, then it could be the case that all unicorns are gauche but it could also be the case that there are some gauche unicorns.

(I)	If (I) is true	Some unicorns are gauche creatures.			If (I) is false
	(A) is undetermined	All Unicorns are gauche creatures.			(A) is false è	If (I) is true, then (A) is undetermined: if it is true that there are some gauche unicorns, then it could be the case that all unicorns are gauche too, but it could also be the case that not all unicorns are gauche. If (I) is false, then (A) is false: if it is false that there are some gauche unicorns, then it can't be the case that all unicorns are gauche.
	(E) is false	No unicorns are gauche creatures.			(E) is true è	If (I) is true, then (E) is false: if it is true that there are some gauche unicorns, then it can't be the case that there are no gauche unicorns. If (I) is false, then (E) is true: if it is false that there are some gauche unicorns, then it is true to day that there are no gauche unicorns.
	(O) is undetermined	Some unicorns are not gauche creatures.			(O) is true è	If (I) is true, then (O) is undetermined: if it is true that there are some gauche unicorns, then it could be the case that not all unicorns are gauche, but it could also the case that all unicorns are gauche too. If (I) is false, then (O) is true: if it is false that there are some gauche unicorns, then it would be true to say that some unicorns are not gauche.

(O)	If (O) is true	Some unicorns are not gauche creatures.			If (O) is false
	(A) is false	All Unicorns are gauche creatures.			(A) is true è	If (O) is true, (A) is false: just because some unicorns are not gauche does not mean that all unicorns are not gauche. If (O) is false, (A) is true: if it is false that there are some unicorns that are not gauche, then it all unicorns are gauche. Consider the opposite, if all unicorns are gauche, then it could not be the case that some unicorns are, at the same time, not gauche.
	(E) is undetermined	No unicorns are gauche creatures.			(E) is false è	If (O) is true, (E) is undetermined: if some unicorns are not gauche, then it could be that, in fact, there are no unicorns are gauche, but it could also be the case that there are some gauche unicorns. If (O) is false, (E) is false: if it is false that some unicorns are not gauche creatures, then all unicorns are gauche, which means it would be false to claim that no unicorn is gauche.
	(I) is undetermined	Some unicorns are gauche creatures.			(I) is true è	If (O) is true, then (I) is undetermined: if some unicorns are not gauche, then it could be the case that there are some gauche unicorns, but it could also be the case that there are no gauche unicorns at all. If (O) is false, then (I) is true: if it is false that some unicorns are not gauche creatures, then, of course, there are some gauche unicorns.

Conversions	Some statements' subjects and predicates are interchangeable
			(A)	All unicorns are gauche creatures.
	does not convert to		~~(A)~~	All gauche creatures are unicorns. è		What other creatures are gauche? Are panthers gauche too? If any, then (A) can't be converted.

			(E)	No unicorns are gauche creatures.
	does convert to		(E)	No gauche creatures are unicorns.

			(I)	Some unicorns are gauche creatures.
	does convert to		(I)	Some gauche creatures are unicorns.

			(O)	Some unicorns are not gauche creatures. è		This is a claim about the qualities of unicorns.
	does not convert to		~~(O)~~	Some gauche creatures are not unicorns. è		This is a claim about the qualities of other creatures.

Trying it Out	I. 1 I. 2 I. 3
	IV. 2					IV. 2: No Olympic athletes are habitual cigarette smokers.
	IV. 3					IV. 3: All Romans are strong believers in the importance of law.
	V. 2					V. 2: False
	V. 3					V. 3: Indeterminate
	VI. 1					VI. 1: Illegitimate
	VI. 2					VI. 2: Legitimate


Syllogisms	"In a syllogism we lay out our train of reasoning in an explicit way, identifying the major premise of the argument, the minor premise and the conclusion."		The "ordering of premises and conclusions in a logical structure is called a syllogism–the basic form of deductive logic."

Major Premise	"The major premise consists of the chief reason for the conclusion" "it is the premise that contains the term in the predicate of the conclusion."

Minor Premise	"The minor premise supports the conclusion in an auxiliary way" "it contains the term that appears in the subject of the conclusion."

Syllogism E.G.	Major Premise:	All single-horned creatures are special.
	Minor Premise:	All narwhals are single-horned creatures.
	Conclusion:	Narwhals are special.

Enthymemes	Arguments "with an unstated premise or conclusion" are "incomplete arguments called enthymemes."		"Sometimes enthymemes are used for purposes of deception when the missing section would reveal the argument as unsound" "usually they occur because the premise or conclusion is too obvious to state."

First Order Enthymeme	"When an argument lacks the major premise it is called an enthymeme of the first order"

First Order Enthymeme E.G.	Major: Minor: All narwhals are single-horned creatures. Conclusion: Narwhals are special.

Second Order Enthymeme	"one that lacks the minor premise is an enthymeme of the second order"

Second Order Enthymeme E.G.	Major: All single-horned creatures are special. Minor: Conclusion: Narwhals are special.

Third Order Enthymeme	"one missing the conclusion is an enthymeme of the third order"

Third Order Enthymeme E.G.	Major: All single-horned creatures are special. Minor: All narwhals are single-horned creatures. Conclusion:

Validity	"an argument is called valid if, given the premises, the conclusion is unavoidable." "Validity ... applies to the structure of an argument"		Validity does not apply to "the statements that make up [an argument's] content"

Invalid	"An argument ... where the conclusion fails to follow from the premises, is consider invalid."		"the form of the argument is flawed so that the reasons that are given do not support the claim that is made."

Truth	"Truth ... is a quality of statements, and we call a statement false if it fails to reflect reality."

True & Invalid	All mammals are creatures that breathe. All narwhals are creatures that breathe. All narwhals are mammals.		"If the conclusion to an argument is true by accident rather than by necessity, that is, true but not valid, then the argument is valueless because it cannot be proven."

Valid & Untrue	All mammals are creatures that lay eggs. All cedars are mammals. All cedars are creatures that lay eggs.

True & Valid / Sound	"a sound argument must be both valid and true, that is, valid in form and with premises and a conclusion that are true."

Trying it Out	I. 3		All charitable people are caring. Some monarchs are charitable people. Some monarchs are caring people.
	II. 2		Third Order
	II. 3		Second Order
	IV. 4		All those critical of their country are disloyal citizens and should leave. All intellectuals are those critical of their country. All intellectuals are disloyal citizens and should leave. Valid, but untrue
	IV. 6		All computers are entities that can think. All human beings are entities that can think. All human beings are computers. Invalid.

Chapter Eight: Patterns of Deductive Thinking


							Burton F. Porter's The Voice of Reason: Fundamentals of Critical Thinking, Oxford University Press, 2002.

Deductive Formal Arguments	Deductive Formal Arguments "In deductive thinking we reason from a broad claim to some specific conclusion that can be drawn from it" "We 'deduce' a particular from a general statement"						"We begin with a blanket assertion, then show what would necessarily follow as a logical consequence."

Sub-classifications of Deductive Formal Arguments	"Deductive thinking has three patters ... categorical, hypothetical, and disjunctive."

Using Categorical Arguments	Categorical claims aren't just broad, but universal						"When a deductive argument is not just broad based, but begins with a universal claim, it is referred to as categorical in nature." "The major premise is not surrounded by qualifications, exceptions, or alternatives but asserts that something is the case universally."

Middle Term	A term is called a "middle term" "because it appears twice in the premises"

Discerning Soundness	"Usually we can tell offhand if an argument is correct, but that is not always the case. When we are uncertain whether a conclusion does follow from the premises we have to use strict procedures to test the validity of the reasoning."

Attributing: Affirmative v. Negative / Universal v. Particular	In discerning validity First, determine whether the premises and conclusion individually have the sub-attribute of being affirmative or negative Second, determine whether the premises and conclusion individually have the sub-attribute of being universal or particular						"First, we must analyze the premises and the conclusion to comprise the syllogism to see whether they are affirmative or negative, and whether they refer to all or only some of a class, that is, whether they are universal or particular."

Table for: Affirmative v. Negative / Universal v. Particular	Sentence			Standard From		Attribute
	All unicorns are creatures that addle		A	All S is P		Universal affirmative
	No unicorns are creatures that addle		E	No S is P		Universal negative
	Some unicorns are creatures that addle		I	Some S is P		Particular affirmative
	Some unicorns are not creatures that addle		O	Some S is not P		Particular negative

Distribution	A term is distributed if it covers every member of the class Third, determine whether or not the terms are distributed						"Following [the attribute analysis] we must then break the sentences down further to see whether the subject and predicate terms are distributed, that is, whether they cover every member of the class." "Some terms in the sentences that make up the syllogism refer to everything that comprises the group and some refer only to some of them."

Distribution for A: All S is P	E.G.: All parrots are birds For the subject term, parrots, "we are referring to every single parrot, so the subject term is distributed" For the predicate term, birds, "we are not talking about all birds, so the predicate term is not distributed," or undistributed

Distribution for E: No S is P	E.G: No wars are profitable The subject term, war, "is distributed because the claim is that, of the entire category of wars, non is profitable" The predicate term, profitable, "is also distributed because no member of the class of profitable things is also a war"

Distribution for I: Some S is P	E.G.: Some diseases are tropical The subject term, diseases, is undistributed as only "some diseases are referred to" The predicate term, tropical, is undistributed as "tropical" "does not refer to all things in the tropics but only a portion of them"

Distribution for O: Some S is not P	E.G.: Some New Englanders are not friendly The subject term, New Englanders, is undistributed as we are not referring to all of the members of the category of New Englanders The predicate term, friendly, is distributed, "[f]or the claim is that some New Englanders are excluded from the entire class of friendly people"

Distribution Table		Standard From	Subject Term		Predicate Term
	A	All S is P	Distributed		Undistributed
	E	No S is P	Distributed		Distributed
	I	Some S is P	Undistributed		Undistributed
	O	Some S is not P	Undistributed		Distributed

Rules of Validity for Categorical Deductive Arguments	1) "At least one of the premises must be affirmative" 2) "If a premise is negative then the conclusion must also be negative, and if the conclusion is negative then a premise must be negative" 3) "The middle term must be distributed at least once" 4) "Any term distributed in the conclusion must also be distributed in a premise"						"Once we understand affirmative and negative and the concept of distribution, we can apply the rules governing the validity of deductive arguments of a categorical type."

Steps to Analyzing Categorical Deductive Arguments	1) "Separate the conclusion form the premises" 2) "Paraphrase the sentences into standard form" 3) "Arrange the statements into a categorical syllogism, completing any enthymemes" 4) "Judge the validity of the syllogism in terms of the four rules, using the factors of affirmative or negative and distribution" 5) "Determine whether the premises and conclusion are true and the argument sound"


Deductive Formal Arguments	Deductive Formal Arguments "In deductive thinking we reason from a broad claim to some specific conclusion that can be drawn from it" "We 'deduce' a particular from a general statement"	"We begin with a blanket assertion, then show what would necessarily follow as a logical consequence."

Sub-classifications of Deductive Formal Arguments	"Deductive thinking has three patters ... categorical, hypothetical, and disjunctive."

Hypotheticals	The If/Then Form	"Hypothetical arguments are usually more obvious than categorical ones." "Rather than being embedded in some text, they appear on the surface, which makes them easier to evaluate and to build into an argument."

	"A hypothetical argument has an 'if/then' pattern." "We say that, provided one thing is true, then another thing would follow."	"It is conditional in form rather than making some absolute claim." "An assumption is made at the start and the argument then carries out the implications of that assumption."

The Parts of Hypotheticals	Antecedent Consequent	"The first part of the major premise, from 'if' to 'then,' is called the antecedent, and the second part, from 'then' the end of the sentence, is called the consequent."

Valid Hypotheticals	Affirming the antecedent Denying the consequent	"the two valid forms of hypothetical thinking are affirming the antecedent and denying the consequent."

Valid Hypothetical / Affirming the Antecedent	When the minor premise affirms the antecedent of the major premise, the conclusion follows necessarily	"The argument is perfectly valid because, in the minor premise, we have affirmed the antecedent."

E.G. Valid Hypothetical / Affirming the Antecedent	If a horse has a single horn, then it is a unicorn The horse named Charlie has a single horn Charlie is a unicorn

Valid Hypothetical / Denying the Consequent	When the minor premise denies the consequent of the major premise, the conclusion follows necessarily	"Here we have denied the consequent, and although the reasoning might be more difficult to see, it is also correct."

E.G. Valid Hypothetical / Denying the Consequent	If a horse has a single horn, then it is a unicorn Tonto's horse, Scout, is not a unicorn Scout is not a horse with a single horn

Invalid Hypotheticals	Denying the antecedent Affirming the consequent

Invalid Hypothetical / Denying the Antecedent	When the minor premise denies the antecedent of the major premise, the conclusion does not follow

E.G. Invalid Hypothetical / Denying the Antecedent	If Charlie is a unicorn, then he can turn mosquitos into Skittles & Jelly Beans Charlie is not a unicorn So, Charlie can't turn mosquitos into Skittles & Jelly Beans

Invalid Hypothetical / Affirming the Consequent	When the minor premise affirms the consequent of the major premise, the conclusion does not follow

E.G. Invalid Hypothetical / Affirming the Consequent	If Charlie is a unicorn, then he can turn mosquitos into Skittles and Jelly Beans Charlie can turn mosquitos into Skittles and Jelly Beans So, Charlie is a unicorn

Steps for Judging Hypothetical Arguments	1) "Arrange the statements into hypothetical form" 2) "Judge the argument's validity in terms of the rules" 3) "Determine whether the premises and conclusion are true, and the argument sound"

Trying it Out	You Pick

Disjunctives	Either/Or Alternatives	"In a disjunctive sentence two possibilities are presented, at least one of which is true (although both might be)."

True Disjunctives / One Disjunct	"One of the disjuncts has to be true, so if we know one of the alternatives to be false, we can declare the other to be true and produce a valid argument." "It does not matter which disjunct we eliminate; the one remaining must be true."

E.G. True Disjunctives / One Disjunct	Either Charlie is a narwhal or a unicorn Charlie is not a narwhal So, Charlie is a unicorn

Rules for Disjunctive Validity	"In a valid disjunctive argument we deny one of the disjuncts and affirm the other." "An invalid disjunctive argument is one which we affirm one of the disjuncts and deny the other."

Qualification to Rules for Disjunctive Validity	"One qualification should be mentioned. In some types of disjuncts we do eliminate one part by affirming the other."

E.G. Qualification to Rules for Disjunctive Validity	Either Charlie is in Candy-Mountain or he is On Big Rock Candy Mountain Charlie is in Candy-Mountain So, Charlie is not on Big Rock Candy Mountain

Disjunctive Safety	"To be on the safe side, we should follow the rule of denying one disjunct and affirming the other." "That applies to all valid disjunctive arguments, so if we operate this way we are sure of being correct."

Invalid Disjunctive Argument / Both Disjuncts True	"Since both [disjuncts] might be true, one disjunct is not eliminated when we affirm the other."	"in fact both [disjuncts] could be [true]." "That means we would not get a valid argument by affirming one part of the disjunct in the minor premise and denying the other in our conclusion."

E.G. Invalid Disjunctive Argument / Both Disjuncts True	Either Charlie is a unicorn or a magical creature Charlie is a unicorn So, Charlie is not a magical creature

False Disjuncts / False Dilemmas / False Aporias	"Although some issues can be neatly divided into either/or alternatives, many others are more complex than that." "We should be careful not to pose 'false disjuncts' that make it appear as though only two choices are possible when the options are much wider than that."	"This is sometimes called binary thinking–seeing the world in terms of pairs of opposites. Life usually is more subtle, nuanced, and shaded than offering a choice between black and white."

Steps for Judging Disjunctive Arguments	1) "Arrange the statements into disjunctive form" 2) "Judge the argument's validity in terms of the rules" 3) "Determine whether the premises and conclusions are true, and the argument sound"

Trying it Out	You Pick

Chapter Nine: Inductive Thinking: Identifying Causes / Analogical Arguments


			Burton F. Porter's The Voice of Reason: Fundamentals of Critical Thinking, Oxford University Press, 2002.

Inductive Formal Arguments	"In the inductive process we reason from specific instances to some generalization based upon those instances." From particular cases to general conclusion		"We begin with an examination of particular cases, then reach some general conclusion–just the reverse of deduction." "we begin with particulars and derive a general conclusion that follows from them."

Inductive Formal Arguments / In a Sense, Educated Guesses	"Induction hazards an educated guess based on strong but not absolute proof about some general conclusion that can be drawn from the evidence."		"In inductive arguments, we extend the premises and make a claim beyond the cases that are given."

Inductive Formal Arguments / Certitude	Inductive conclusions do not have certitude		Inductive arguments are "not nearly as reliable as [deductive arguments] because the conclusion is never certain."

Inductive Formal Arguments / Certitude / E.G.	"even for the statement that the sun will shine every day, which is based on all recorded instances in the past but not on all possible instances."

Inductive Formal Arguments / Probability	With inductive arguments, we seek Not certainty, but a "high degree of probability"		"rather than striving for certainty we have to settle for a high degree of probability, and the task in induction is simply to increase the probability that our conclusion is correct." "Used properly, induction can lead to extremely reliable generalizations, as science has shown."

Sub-classifications of Inductive Formal Arguments	Sub-Class		"Inductive reasoning has four types: analogy, causation, generalization, and hypothesis"
	Causation	Chapter Nine
	Analogy	Chapter Nine
	Generalization	Chapter Ten
	Hypothesis	Chapter Ten

Causation	The Consequent and the Subsequent

Similarity	Causation ≠ Similarity Consider "the 'law of similarity,' whereby like is thought to produce like." Here we have "cases where an event is thought to be the cause of another just because it came first."

False Connection	Two unrelated events are illicitly assumed to connected		"A false connection has been established between two events such that we assume that the one event is responsible for the other when, in fact, they are unrelated." "The mistake of the ["]pretechnological person["] is to assume a causal connection where there is only an unrelated series of events." "One piece of knowledge we do possess is that this decision cannot be made by observation but only by reasoning." Hume: "we never see a cause." "we only perceive one event followed by another event, and we infer that there is a causal relationship." "After Hume, we can no longer identify a cause-effect connection by saying 'I can see it,' but only by claiming, 'I can prove it.'"

Similarity E.G.	Consider Pythagoras and beans

Connections	"Sometimes when we say that one event has produced another that claim is reasonable and correct."		"Not all of the connection we accept are absurd, of course." "If we expect rain after seeing low, dark clouds, that is perfectly legitimate"

Distinguishing Necessary v. Accidental Sequences	"The problem, therefore, lies in recognizing genuine causal connections and distinguishing them from mere temporal succession." Necessary Sequence ≠ Accidental Sequence		"That is, in our reasoning we need to separate a necessary train of happenings from an accidental one."

Causes	"A causal event compels a further event to occur rather than simply preceding it."

Subsequent v. Consequent	An Accidental Sequence has Merely Subsequent Steps A Necessary Sequence has Consequent Steps		"Another way of putting the point is to say that some events are subsequent, meaning that they just happen to follow, while others are consequent; they occur because of the earlier event."

Four Methods of Establishing Causal Connections	Agreement Difference Agreement and Difference Concomitant Variations		"The nineteenth-century English philosopher John Stuart Mill ... considerably refined the process of identifying causal connections." "Mill specified four 'methods' that can be used to recognize cause-effect chains: that of agreement, difference, agreement and difference, and concomitant variations."

Method One / Method of Agreement	"If two or more instances of the phenomenon under investigation have only one circumstance in common, the circumstance in which alone all the instances agree, is the cause (or effect) of the given phenomenon."

Method One / Method of Agreement / E.G.	Prior Factor	Effect
	Cabbage, Pickle, Parsnip	Sick
	Carrot, Pickle, Turnip	Sick
	Onion, Pickle, Garlic	Sick
	Tomato, Pickle, Beet	Sick
	So _________ is the cause

Method One / Method of Agreement / Limits	"That common denominator might be the cause, or it could be something wholly irrelevant and unconnected."		"Although this method has been used to identify the cause of everything from crime and pollution to creativity and success, it suffers from a major defect: that there is very often more than one common factor." "The number of ways in which cases agree can be endless, so we never know which of the multiple, common, prior factors is the cause." "we do not know whether we can halt our inquiry once we have found some factor in common." "We are always left with nagging suspicion that if only we had pursued the matter a little further, tested more people, conducted our survey more thoroughly, then we would learn the actual cause."

Method One / Method of Agreement / Limits E.G.	Charlie the unicorn drank a latte one evening, café con leche the next evening, and tea with milk the following evening. In all three cases Charlie couldn't get to bed before midnight, so being a logical unicorn he decided to eliminate the dairy products from his evening drink.

Method Two / Method of Difference	"If an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation occurs, and an instance in which it does not occur, have every circumstances in common save for one, that one occurring only in the former; the circumstance in which alone the two instances differ, is the effect, or the cause, or an indispensable part of the cause, of the phenomenon."

Method Two / Method of Difference / E.G.	Prior Factor	Effect
	Skittles, Haggis, Jelly Beans	Not Sick
	Skittles, Haggis, Jelly Beans	Not Sick
	Skittles, McNuggets, Jelly Beans	Sick
	Skittles, Haggis, Jelly Beans	Not Sick
	So _________ is the cause

Method Two / Method of Difference / Limits	"just as the areas of agreement can be numerous, so can the differences." "we can never be sure we have struck the significant difference, found the real culprit, the genuine cause behind the effect."		"Although this approach seems more persuasive, the obvious problem with it is that, just as the areas of agreement can be numerous, so can the differences." "This being so, we can never be sure we have struck the significant difference, found the real culprit, the genuine cause behind the effect."

Method Two / Method of Difference / Limits E.G.	The McNuggets may have been fine and the sick person may have gotten sick because they shook a sick person's hand

Method Three / Method of Agreement and Difference	"Here we judge as the cause that element which all preceding events have in common (agreement) after factoring out any common elements that did not result in the subsequent event (difference)." "We are then left with the common element present only in positive instances, and that is taken as the cause."

Method Three / Method of Agreement and Difference / E.G.	Prior Factors	Effects
	Durian, Blueberry, Apple	Sick
	Durian, Raspberry, Apple	Sick
	Durian, Orange, Pineapple	Not Sick
	Durian, Peach, Pineapple	Not Sick
	So _________ is the cause

Method Four / Method of Concomitant Variations	"Here we try to establish causation by recognizing a correlation in the way one set of events varies in relation to another." "we see a correlation in degree and regularity between two events, such that we infer that the first must be causally related to the second."		This method "is usually employed when a continuous flow of events is involved and we often cannot control for the negative occurrences."

Method Four / Method of Concomitant Variations / E.G.	"For example, people have observed that the height of the tide depends upon the phases of the moon." "When the moon is full the tide is highest; a half-moon is followed by a medium tide; and a low tide seems to be related to a quarter or a crescent moon." "Because of the consistency and predictability of the relation, we can infer a cause-effect link: the larger the moon, the higher the tide."

Necessary & Sufficient Conditions	"a necessary condition is that without which something cannot occur." "The sufficient conditions are those that in the presence of which something must occur."		"one basic way of proving causal connections is to ask whether the second event could have occurred without the first." "If it [the second condition] could not, the first event can be named as a cause." In technical terms this means identifying the first even as a necessary condition for the second."

Necessary & Sufficient Conditions / E.G.	"Salt cannot occur without the presence of sodium, but that is not enough. One part chlorine is also necessary, and the two together they the (sic.) sufficient conditions for producing salt (NaCl)."

Necessary & Sufficient Conditions / Qualification	Not all conditions are causes		"sometimes conditions are not the same as causes." "When there is such a differentiation between conditions and causes, the conditions are usually the more passive circumstances while the causes consist of more active elements."

Necessary & Sufficient Conditions / Qualification / E.G.	Charlie has got to get to Candy Mountain so he bums some money off me so he can rent a car (he needs a convertible, for obvious reasons, so he can't borrow my car) I loan Charlie fifty quid Charlie gets into a car accident Charlie, not the finest unicorn at logic, pins some of the blame on me since my loaning him fifty quid was one of the conditions the lead to him getting into an accident I defend myself by pointing out to Charlie that ... Not all conditions are causes

Causes Proximate & Causes Remote	Proximate Causes ≠ Remote Causes

Proximate Cause	"a proximate cause is that which immediately triggers an event." A proximate cause "functions as the factor that precipitates some happening."

Remote Cause	"A remote cause, on the other hand, is the background cause that ultimately produces a certain effect; these causes are usually multiple." Remote causes "stretch backwards in time as links in the cause-effect chain, and contribute to the inevitable and final outcome."

Proximate and Remote Causes / E.G.	WWI

Difficulties With Cause	"One lesson to be learned is that most events are the consequence of numerous causes, so try (sic.) to find the single cause or 'real' cause, whether proximate or remote, can be a futile exercise." "Some causes are certainly main ones and others peripheral, but rarely do we find one event that can be labeled as the cause."

Some Problems in Determining Causation	Cause v. Effect Causation v. Correlation Logical v. Psychological

Difficulty in Distinguishing Cause from Effect	Cause and effect "vary in relation to each other, but the direction is hard to determine."

Difficulty in Distinguishing Cause from Effect / E.G.	"it is hard to determine whether the times create great leaders or great leaders create the times" "is seeing believing or believing seeing, that is, do our prior expectations make our perceptions selective?"

Difficulty in Distinguishing Causation from Correlation	Can statistical correlations "be taken as causal correlations?" "a distinction does exist between correlation and causation."

Difficulty in Distinguishing Causation from Correlation / E.G.	This is "the main point of debate with regard to cigarette smoking and cancer." "the Tobacco Institute has argued that the only evidence presented for the connection between smoking and cancer is the high statistical correlation between heavy smoking and incidence of cancer." "But, it is claimed, no causal proof has been established, and until such proof is forthcoming we cannot claim that smokers are more likely to contract cancer than nonsmokers."

Difficulty in Distinguishing The Logical from the Psychological	This problem "has to do without tendency to attribute causation to events that are connected only periodically, not constantly." And "intermittent reinforcement is very powerful–much more powerful, in fact, than regular reinforcement."

Difficulty in Distinguishing The Logical from the Psychological / E.G.	"from a psychological point of view the occasional win confirms the gambler in the belief. The logical and the psychological are at odds in this situation, and obviously we should try to be governed by logic and not by whatever might be satisfying to think?"


Similes & Metaphors	"Similes and metaphors are figures of speech that compare two things for their illuminating or evocative resemblance." "similes and metaphors compare things that are essentially different except for some arresting similarity"	They are "poetic devices that draw together events, objects, or ideas, which are otherwise dissimilar, in a striking comparison." "similes and metaphors compare things that are essentially different except for some arresting similarity"

Similes	"Similes, from the Latin meaning 'likeness,' use the terms 'as' or 'like' to make the comparison explicit"

Metaphors	"metaphors, from the Greek meaning 'transfer,' dispense with the indicator terms and imply the connection by substituting the language of one for the other."	"metaphors make their comparisons in a subtle way and even more effectively." "They are sometimes called the soul of poetry, and might even antedate logical thinking; early human beings could have grasped resemblances apart from discursive thought."

Analogical Arguments	"From the Greek ana logon, 'according to a ratio," analogies declare a relationship between two things, a parallel connection, usually between two ideas or a set of ideas." "analogical arguments compare things that are alike in all essential respects and are then claimed to be alike in some further respect."	"Analogical arguments operate outside the realm of poetry in the sense that they do not attempt to be evocative but to prove a point." Freud: "'Analogies decide nothing, that is true, but they can make one feel more at home." "Finding analogies does seem a very creative approach to reasoning, for when we do so we think horizontally rather than vertically. That is, instead of operating sequentially, as in causation and deductive syllogisms ... we think in lateral terms, discovering unexpected but strong parallels between objects, events, or ideas."

Analogical Arguments / E.G. / Watchmaker	Watchmaker	"The English theologian William Paley ... presented one of the best known analogical arguments. Paley tried to support the view of St. Thomas Aquinas that the world exhibits evidence of a purposeful design and therefore proves the existence of an intelligent designer, that is, god." "Paley did this by comparing the world to the mechanism of a watch. If we were on a deserted island and found a watch ticking away in perfect order, we would have to assume that a watchmaker had produced the watch. To maintain that the parts just came together by pure chance to form a functioning watch would be farfetched and strain credibility. In the same way, when we come upon the world operating in an organized and structured fashion, we cannot assume that the orderliness is accidental. We must conclude that a creator designed the world with the complex organization that it exhibits."

Analogical Arguments / E.G. / Copernicus	"It was analogical thinking that led Copernicus to conceive of a heliocentric rather than a geocentric solar system. One day while Copernicus was drifting down a river in a boat, he experienced the illusion that the bank was moving while his boat remained still. The idea suddenly struck him that it could also be an illusion that the sun moved around the earth while the earth remained stationary; perhaps it was the earth that revolved around the sun. He verified his analogy by experimental device, and revolutionized our conception of the universe."

Analogical Arguments / E.G. / State/Soul	State/Soul

Analogical Arguments / E.G. / Camel, Lion, Toddler	Camel, Lion, Toddler

Analogical Arguments / Carefully	"one of its basic weaknesses ... almost anything can be proven by carefully selecting the comparison."

Analogical Arguments / Carefully / E.G.	Old age Wine v. Condemned	"If we want to argue for the blessedness of old age we can compare it to the maturing of a fine wine or say that one achieves senior status in the community, acquires patience and wisdom, free from the tyranny of the passions." "But if we want to show the sadness of old age we can compare it to a house that is decrepit and crumbling, a pitiful ruin dimly reflecting its former dignity."

Analogical Arguments / Effectiveness	Follow the rules	"Just as there are rules for determining which causal arguments are most probable, there are criteria that can be used to test the strength of analogical arguments."

Analogical Arguments / Rule One	1) "The two cases must be alike in all essential respects, and the greater the similarities the more probable the argument." "we want to be sure that we have numerous characteristics that are alike in the cases compared."	"the greater the resemblance between the things that are compared, the greater the probability that the argument is sound." "an argument in which the analogical arguments compare in many essential respects is more reliable than one in which only a few resemblances are evident."

Analogical Arguments / Rule One / E.G.	A rainbow of unicorns is composed of individual unicorns working to achieve a common goal, and just as teamwork is necessary for unicorns to achieve their common goals, it is likewise necessary for narwhals A pod of narwhals is composed of individual narwhals working together to achieve a common goal So, narwhals should evince teamwork

Analogical Arguments / Rule Two	2) "The greater the number of cases compared, the stronger the probability of the conclusion."	"the force of the analogy will increase in direct relation to the number of instances used as a base."

Analogical Arguments / Rule Two / E.G.	It is not just that one rainbow of unicorns (composed of individual unicorns working to achieve a common goal) evinces teamwork, thirteen different rainbows of unicorns have the same qualities.

Analogical Arguments / Rule Three	3) "The greater the dissimilarity of the cases used as the base of the analogy, the higher the probability of the conclusion." "we are concerned to diversify the cases themselves so that we are not using just one type as a foundation for the analogy."

Analogical Arguments / Rule Three / E.G.	And its not just the Californian Bearded Unicorns that have these qualities, it is also the Wooly Unicorns of Montana, the Frisky Unicorns of Köln, and the Freckled Unicorns of Bielefeld that evince teamwork If it could be shown that even horses have the same qualities, and thus teamwork, the analogy would be even stronger

Analogical Arguments / Veracity	Probability, not certainty	"If all three rules are followed, the likelihood of the analogy being correct is increased considerably, although we can never be certain of our conclusion." "even after we take the precautions we never know whether the two cases do compare in that one additional respect that we are trying to prove." "Ultimately, that is always unknown, but we can reinforce what we do know and hope thereby to arrive at a reliable conclusion about something not directly provable."

Analogical Arguments / W/in One Category	"In analogical reasoning we do not have to compare two very different objects, and when we compare objects in the same category the reliability of the analogy increases."	"Analogies of this type are easier to make and verify, although they do not possess the provocative character or more remote connections." "What we gain in reliability we lose in charm."

Analogical Arguments / W/in One Category	Unicorns should avoid entering Candy Mountain Charlie the Unicorn lost a kidney after being lured into Candy Mountain, and chances are, other unicorns will lose a kidney if they too enter Candy Mountain

Analogical Arguments / Reductio ad Absurdum Objection	"drawing out the implications of an argument to the point where it appears ludicrous ... is called a reductio ad absurdum." "in criticizing an analogy, instead of challenging the resemblance one can accept it and then show how ridiculous it would be if carried to its logical conclusion." "In a sense, we are actually demonstrating that the analogy has many dissimilarities and is therefore an extremely weak argument."	"the reductio ad absurdum should be carried to the point where the proposer is forced to withdraw the analogy altogether."

Analogical Arguments / Reductio ad Absurdum Objection / E.G.	"The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer ... once said that books are like mirrors; if an ass looks in you cannot expect an angel to look out. We could criticize this comparison by asking whether books also have a backing of sliver acetate, shatter when dropped, and reverse right and left."

Analogical Arguments / Reductio ad Absurdum Objection / E.G. Critique	Is the textbook missing something? We're told that a good analogy shows similarity between essential properties. Consider this version: Bacon argued that without a good scientific method, knowledge is passed down through the ages the same way that stones travel down river. What we is a rigorous scientific method so that bits of knowledge get passed down through the ages the same way that logs travel down a river. But we could object (according to the textbook's logic) that bits of scientific knowledge are neither like stones or logs. What are the essential properties being analogized?

Analogical Arguments / Reductio ad Absurdum Objection / Important Respects	Properties Trivial v. Properties Weighty Important Respects: "No two things can be identical in all respects, or course, for then they would be the same thing, but they should be alike in all important respects." Crucial Points: "In constructing an analogical argument, therefore, care must be taken that the parallels are especially close, touch at numerous crucial points." Essential Respects: "The cases are not alike in all essential respects, which is the main requirement of a strong analogical argument."

Chapter 10: Deriving Generalizations / Forming Hypotheses


		Burton F. Porter's The Voice of Reason: Fundamentals of Critical Thinking, Oxford University Press, 2002.

Generalizing & Describing	Generalizations can be used to justify a conclusion when those justifications are well founded.	"A number of claims we make are generalizations that we think hold true." "we support our generalization with evidence, build a case to show our position is justified."

Generalizing In General	We are generalizing animals "knowledge would hardly be possible unless we made connections, saw similarities between things, and reached broad conclusions about them."	"We generalize all the time" "knowledge would hardly be possible unless we made connections, saw similarities between things, and reached broad conclusions about them."

Abstraction as a Mode of Generalization	Individuals may have unique characteristics, but we can find common characteristics amongst them And "sees similarities in the differences that allow a generalization to be made."	"Having abstracted the characteristics that [things] have in common, we form a generalization that holds true for all [such things]."

Stereotyping	Stereotyping happens when "each member of the group is treated as typical and assumed to possess all the group's features."	"But isn't this stereotyping? Only if each member of the group is treated as typical and assumed to possess all the group's features."

Avoiding Stereotyping	We are engaged in inductive generalizations, so remember, we are in the land of probabilities only "Each person should be treated as an individual even though he or she will probably exhibit some characteristics of the group."

Fair Generalizations	To have a fair generalization is to have one that attains an appropriate level of probability A fair generalization attains an appropriate level of probability when it is well founded	"Generalizing, then, is something unavoidable, the lessons we draw from experience, and since we must generalize the trick is to do it well." "As in all forms of induction, we want to reach a conclusion that is highly probable, which means one based on strong evidence." "We want to make sure we have a good foundation for our generalization and that our reasoning is solid."

Generalizations Inductive ≠ Generalizations Descriptive	Before finding out how to have a well founded generalization, consider the distinction between Generalized Descriptions & Inductive Generalizations	"Let's make a distinction, though, before we address the question of how to form reliable generalizations." "We need to differentiate between a generalized description and an inductive generalization."

Generalized Description	Here there is a "blanket statement based on information about every member of the group."	"In a generalized description we make some blanket statement based on information about every member of the group." "We fell safe in making these broad statements because they cover every person and thing we've mentioned."

Inductive Generalizations	Here there is a claim "about the entire group on the basis of an examination of some of its members."	"In inductive generalizations, by contrast, we make a statement about the entire group on the basis of an examination of some of its members." "We are not describing but inferring from some to all."

Good Generalizations	"The main problem in generalizing, therefore, is figuring out how to achieve reliability."	"What percentage of a group must be examined for us to feel secure about a generalization in our argument?" "Which members should we use as a representative cross section?"

Using a Fair Sample	"in building a generalization into our argument we must be sure it is based on a fair sample." "This means one of sufficient size and randomness to make the generalization" reasonable or well-founded. "It must also be properly stratified."

Size	"the number of cases we examine should be large enough to represent the whole." Judgment here is needed as the subject matter will determine the acceptable size of the sample A "way to determine whether the sample is sufficiently large is to see what the generalization is about."	"It stands to reason that the number of cases we examine should be large enough to represent the whole." "One way to judge how many that should be is to look at what we are generalizing about." "For some things we will need a very large sample, for others only a few cases will be sufficient."

Singular E.G.	In some cases, we need a singular sample "From the fact that we burn our hand in fire, we can conclude that fire burns."	"Can we generalize from one instance?" "That depends on the case." "From the fact that we burn our hand in fire, we can conclude that fire burns." "Depending on the situation, it might be a general truth we can rely on and not an isolated instance."

Small E.G.	Hardness of diamonds	"If we were generalizing about the hardness of diamonds, for instance, two or three examples would be enough because every diamond will have the same properties." "If a few diamonds are found to be hard enough to score glass, then we know that any diamonds will score glass." "In this case, if you've seen one, you've seen them all."

Large E.G.	Hardness of wood	"if we are generalizing about the hardness of wood, we might have to examine hundreds of samples because wood is not uniform in hardness." "There are many types of wood from light balsa, to pine or walnut, to dense woods like ebony or oak (ebony is so heaving, in fact, that it sinks!)." "If we were writing a report, we would need to show that the research had been extensive. Only then would people accept our generalization about the hardness of wood."

Sufficient Size	"The moral of the story is that if we want to generalize in our argument we need a large enough sample on which to base it"

Problems w/ Sufficient Size	"we may not always know the subject well enough to determine in advance whether a large or small sample is needed."	"there is a problem with judging adequate size by looking at the subject of the generalization."

Hands-On Method	"In this method we increase the sample size until the results begin to repeat themselves." "Then we can stop, knowing we have examined enough cases." "A hands-on experiment ... is the most reliable method of determining whether our generalization is based on an adequate sample size."	"In these situations we may be able to use another method to determine the ideal size of the sample." "Rather than speculating on the proper size based on the nature of the subject, we should use this method whenever possible."

Randomness	Here we can thwart biased generalizations "we must make sure that the sample studied represents the whole and does not bias our conclusion." "Unless our sample is random, our generalization will be distorted rather than fair."	"In addition to achieving a fair sample in terms of size, we must also pay attention to the factor of randomness." "We want to avoid 'loading' the sample in favor of a particular result but give every member of the class an equal chance of being chosen."

The Bias Danger	"we tend to perceive and remember what we are seeking, and to ignore counter instances."	"our generalization shouldn't just perpetuate some biased viewpoint but try to get at the truth of things." "Bias can creep into our thinking in unconscious ways that are hard to detect." "Not only could we be biased because of the prejudices we bring to our investigation, but also because of more subtle psychological factors that block a clear understanding." "Whatever our generalization, we must be on a guard so that our psychological attitudes and prejudices do not warp the result."

Stratification	"Here we want to include all strata or classes that could have an important effect on our generalization." "Every relevant group must be taken into account."	"If we [leave] our [any relevant categories], the sample [will] not represent the whole and our generalization [will] not be sound."

Reliability	With those three steps completed, our generalization becomes more reliable	"It is only after we feel comfortable that a generalization is reliable that we can use it in our argument."

Steps to Fair Generalization	Size Randomness Stratification

Steps to Fair Generalization / Step One / Size	1) "Check for adequate size in terms of the nature of the subject matter." "In an experimental situation, take repeated samples until the results begin to repeat themselves."

Steps to Fair Generalization / Step Two / Randomness	2) "Be sure the generalization is random and free from bias in the sampling, so that each of the relevant elements has an equal chance of being chosen."

Steps to Fair Generalization / Step Three / Stratification	3) "Make certain the sample is stratified, which means that all relevant categories are included and none is excluded that would significantly affect the generalization."


Hypotheses in Arguments	"A hypothesis can be defined as an explanatory principle accounting for known facts." "In hypothetical thinking we want to know why something is true, and we reason backward to find some explanation for the facts, one that makes sense of them." "We use our imagination to find some reason why things are the way they are."

Resonance w/ Analogical Arguments	Just as we go from the known to the unknown in analogical arguments, by employing an hypothesis, we go from known facts to an unknown explanation. "the facts are known but the explanation for the facts is missing." (See what I did there?)	"Whatever theory we devise must be plausible and account for the phenomenon."

Evaluating Hypotheses	"How ... do we separate the genuine hypothesis from the fictional one?" "What separates a reliable hypothesis from an unreliable one or, more precisely, what features must a sound hypothesis possess?"	"Some hypotheses ... bear little relation to reality."

Developing an Adequate Hypothesis	"We must pay attention to these five rules in order to develop sound hypotheses." 1) Consistency 2) Plausibility 3) Comprehensiveness 4) Simplicity 5) Predictability	"By their very nature, hypotheses are highly speculative, sometimes little more than educated guesses, but if we operate with integrity we can present hypotheses that are reasonable and much more likely to be correct."

Measuring the Adequacy of Hypotheses / Consistency	"Consistency with other hypotheses we accept." "A new hypothesis should be congruent with the bulk of hypotheses that we believe to be true." "It should fit in with the body of explanations that from our outlook on life."

Measuring the Adequacy of Hypotheses / Consistency / Revolutions	"Sometimes, of course, a new hypothesis will force us to rethink a number of our basic assumptions and becomes a new paradigm." "Skepticism seems the proper response at the start, holding onto what we have believed until such a time as we receive overwhelming proof to the contrary."

Measuring the Adequacy of Hypotheses / Consistency / Revolutions E.G.	"This happened when the Copernican theory was accepted over the Ptolemaic one, and people began to believe that the earth revolved around the sun rather than the sun around the earth."	"such revolutions in philosophical thinking are relatively rare."

Consistency and Our Expectations	"We should therefore demand consistency in any hypothesis we read about, and we should not except anyone to accept our novel hypothesis if it means that person must radically revise his or her beliefs." Really?	"If the hypothesis we want to accept is at variance with the bulk of hypotheses that others and we have adopted, then we should take the path of humility and accept the traditional ideas."

Measuring the Adequacy of Hypotheses / Plausibility	"any new hypothesis must be plausible according to common sense and traditional ideas." "Every event can be explained in any number of ways, so to determine which hypothesis should be accepted we must screen out the very unlikely ones."	"Since we do have established explanations for a great deal of occurrences in the natural world, any new hypothesis must be plausible according to common sense and traditional ideas."

	"we want to begin our inquiry with the most credible explanation and end up endorsing the hypothesis that is the most plausible."	"We certainly should never argue that if we can't explain something it must be due to the occult, because then we are committing the fallacy of ignorance."

Measuring the Adequacy of Hypotheses / Comprehensiveness	"Any hypothesis that we present should be the most complete explanation we can find." "Many hypotheses will provide a partial answer to the question we are investigating, but we want the most encompassing one that will not leave important parts unexplained."	"the hypothesis is not just closer to the truth but to the whole truth."

Measuring the Adequacy of Hypotheses / Simplicity	Ockham's Razor / Principle of Parsimony "It states that 'entities should not be multiplied beyond what is required,' that is, as simple explanation is preferable to a complicated one."	"This principle is attributed to the fourteenth-century theologian William of Ockham, and it is also called Ockham's Razor or the Law of Parsimony." "In other words, it argues for economy in thinking, and claims simplicity is best in a hypothesis or any other theory."

Measuring the Adequacy of Hypotheses / Predictability	"given the conditions described in our hypothesis, we can expect certain results to follow." "if nothing can be predicted on the basis of our hypothesis, this counts against its soundness, and we should hesitate to use it in our argument."	"If our hypothesis is sound, we should be able to predict events based on that assumption."

Hypotheses E.G. / Devil's Kettle	http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Judge_C._R._ Magney_State_Park#The_ Devil.27s_Kettle

Hypotheses E.G. / "Windsor Hum"	http://online.wsj.com/article/ SB1000142405270230 3990604577370182557339816.html

Chapter 11: Discourse Communities / Political Rhetoric & Persuasion in Advertising The Legal Case


		Burton F. Porter's The Voice of Reason: Fundamentals of Critical Thinking, Oxford University Press, 2002.

The Rhetoric of Politicians	Logos Pathos	"The language of politics is a mix of rational argument and emotional appeal, designed to mold public sentiments and beliefs." "Rather than just communicating information, political rhetoric connects people to the values of their nation."

	Ethos	Politicians "also appeal to the sentiments and prejudices of the audience, wrapping themselves in the flag or making reference to motherhood, apple pie, family values, or religion." "They invoke the traditions of the nation, the values we defended in wars, the words of famous patriots, or defining moments in our country's history." "The political speech, therefore, is a mix of logic and evidence on the one hand and of highly charge language and resonating references on the other."

		"Their aim is to stir people and make them agree with the position advocated by the politician."

Some Parts	Convince Maintain popularity with various groups Pronoun Sensitivity Question Juggle	"The rhetorical politician embodies ... the need to convince people of a position and to maintain popularity with the voters, special interest groups, and the political party. The rhetoric combines rational and emotive elements to accomplish these purposes as well as use judicious pronouns and prudent responses to questions."


Persuasion in Advertising	"In the more technical definition of the American Marking Association, advertising is 'any paid form of nonpersonal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods, or services by an identified sponsor.'"	"advertising uses promotional techniques to persuade people to purchase products or services."

AIDA	Attention: "arresting colours, sounds, size, motion, and words" Interest: "stressing what the product can do for the purchaser" Desire: "making the product seem essential" Action: "motivating the consumer to act immediately"	"According to one well-known formula, the purpose of advertising is AIDA: to attract attention through arresting colours, sounds, size, motion, and words; to arouse interest by stressing what the product can do for the purchaser; to stimulate desire by making the product seem essential; and to produce action by motivating the consumer to act immediately."



Purpose / Inform	"Viewed in the best light, advertising is extremely useful to consumers, informing them about new products and where they can be obtained."

Purpose / Desire Creation	"advertising does more than inform the consumer. It generates wants and desires, and the information provided is not always trustworthy." http://havidol.com/	"Advertisers seek to persuade consumers to purchase a company's product, and in this persuasion process the truth can be distorted."

Purpose / Lifestyle Conditioning

_ _ _	"reasoned consideration of a product is consciously discouraged. The aim is to generate positive feelings or attitudes toward the product, which means that the psychological rather than the logical becomes paramount."

Identification	"One of the chief devices used in advertising is identification, whereby people see themselves depicted in the ad, recognizing not so much the person they are but the person the would like to be."

Association	"They associate with themselves the qualities that are displayed, and feel that if they use the product they too will be glamorous, popular, wealthy, sophisticated, athletic, attractive, or what have you."

Slogans	"slogans and their surrounding copy are intended to make products integral to the culture and to build brand loyalty."

Deception	"In promoting products and services, advertisements are often deceptive, suppressing the whole truth, conveying a false impression, slanting the evidence, exaggerating claims, taking quotations our of context, and otherwise misleading consumers."

Subliminal Advertising	BK:

Puffery	Olds:

Deception w/out False Claims	Olds:

"In Defense of Advertising" by Charles Collins	"It is also claimed that some advertising controls consumers by linking a product with certain 'unconscious' desires." "For example, after watching a beer commercial that portrays a young man drinking a Budweiser and then cozying up to an attractive [woman], I may subsequently purchase a Budweiser and, when asked, say I purchased it because I like that brand of beer. But, say the critics, the real reason I bought the Bud is that the commercial linked that brand iwth my unconscious sexual desire." "The problem here is that the desire is not 'unconscious.' Of course I desire sex. I am also aware that I desire sex. I believe that sex is desirable and am aware I have this belief. Furthermore, I think that Budweiser sometimes works as a means to sex (although I know from experience that Colt-45 does not 'work every time'). In certain cases it doesn't work; one has to experiment. Finally, I am aware I like Budweiser. So, all of this is within the orbit of my conscious awareness. I choose; I am not controlled."

Priming	Priming:


The U.S. Supreme Court	Gregg v. Georgia (1976)

Introduction and Context	In Gregg v. Georgia, the Supreme Court had to determine whether or not the death penalty was permissible–whether or not it was cruel and unusual. The understood their task to be the confrontation with "the fundamental claim that the punishment of death always, regardless of enormity of the offense or the procedure followed in imposing the sentence, is cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the Constitution." To determine an answer to this claim, the Court focused primarily on the Eight Amendment, which explicitly forbids "cruel and unusual" punishment. And as they note, "the clause forbidding 'cruel and unusual' punishments 'is not fastened to the obsolete but may acquire meaning as public opinion becomes enlightened by a humane justice.' ... ." Indeed, the Court seems to agree with Warren who claimed that "'(t)he Amendment must draw its meaning form the evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society.'" The majority of the Court gauged that evolving standard by looking at what followed, legislatively, from a case considered by them four years beforehand, known as the "Furman" case. In Furman they argued that a state had not done enough to make sure that the death penalty was not arbitrarily assigned. In response, a number of states, and even the federal government, changed their laws so that they could continue to assign the death penalty. From this, the majority of the court saw that "a large proportion of American society continues to regard [capital punishment] as an appropriate and necessary criminal sanction." But the Court wanted to make sure that the ever-changing standards of decency did not go against "the basic concept of human dignity." To gauge whether or not it goes against that concept, the Court looked at the commonly appealed to notions of retribution and deterrence.

Retribution	This is the idea that justice can somehow be restored by doing to the criminal what the criminal did to others. Indeed, some in favor of capital punishment think that it is a specific part of human nature, and that people will do it no matter, and so government should do it for them so that it can be done in accordance with "justice." So, "certain crimes are themselves so grievous an affront to humanity that the only adequate response may be the penalty of death."

Deterrence	While it may be true that "there are murderers, such as those who act in passion, for whom the threat of death has little or no deterrent effect," there remain others, such as the murders who premeditate their crimes, and those who are already incarcerated that will likely be deterred from murder thanks to the existence of the possibility of the assignment of capital punishment.

Execution	And the majority of the Court goes on to explain that these goals of retribution and deterrence can be carried out without violating the basic concept of human dignity. Juries can be guided so as to avoid "freakish" impositions of capital punishment.

Human Dignity	As a result of these and similar considerations, the majority of the Court felt that they were able to respect society's idea that capital punishment is decent, and that it can be done with respect for the basic concept of human dignity.


Dissenting Opinion	The dissenting opinion in this case points out that the "decency" appealed to in the majority rests on the populace's ignorance: "the American people are largely unaware of the information critical to a judgment on the morality of the death penalty," and "if they were better informed they would consider it shocking, unjust, and unacceptable."

Dissenting on Deterrence	The dissenting opinion argues that capital punishment is excessive since the same ends of deterring murder can be achieved without capital punishment: (citing a UN claim) "no correlation between the existence of capital punishment and lower rates of capital crime" seems to exist.

Dissenting on Retribution	The dissenting opinion argues that capital punishment is not a fact of human nature, that "it simply defies belief to suggest that the death penalty is necessary to prevent the American people from taking the law into their own hands." As such, the dissenting opinion argues that retribution is not necessary. And as the deterrence claims above, the utilitarian approach that holds that the consequences of capital punishment, fewer capital crimes, can be achieved without capital punishment, retribution cannot be appealed to for its consequences. And when that is admitted, the following claim is made in favor of capital punishment: "the death penalty is appropriate, not because of its beneficial effect on society, but because the taking of the murderer's life is itself morally good." When it is stated this way, the dissenting opinion argues that capital punishment "has as its very basis the total denial of the wrongdoer's dignity and worth," and that it thereby strikes against the basic concept of the dignity of human life.

Dissenting Opinion	As such, the dissenting opinion holds that capital punishment is cruel and unusual punishment.

Chapter 12: Arguments in the Disciplines / Literary Explication & Historical Explanation


Literary Explication		Burton F. Porter's The Voice of Reason: Fundamentals of Critical Thinking, Oxford University Press, 2002.

Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening	Whose woods these are I think I know. His house is in the village though; He will not see me stopping here To watch his woods fill up with snow. My little horse must think it queer To stop without a farmhouse near Between the woods and frozen lake The darkest evening of the year. He gives his harness bells a shake To ask if there is some mistake. The only other sound's the sweep Of easy wind and downy flake. The woods are lovely, dark and deep. But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep And miles to go before I sleep.

John Ciardi	"Robert Frost: the Way to the Poem"	From Burton F. Porter's The Voice of Reason: Fundamentals of Critical Thinking, Oxford University Press, 2002, pp. 286 to 293.

What 'n How	"What happens in it?–which is to say, not what does it mean, but how does it mean? How does it go about being a human reenactment of a human experience?"

Duplicity	"The poet pretends to be talking about one thing, and all the while he is talking about many others."

A Main Metaphor	"The errand, I will venture a bit brashly for lack of space, is left generalized in order more aptly to suggest any errand in life and, therefore, life itself."

Empathy	"A poem does not talk about ideas, it enacts them. The force of the poem's performance, in fact, is precisely to act out (and thereby to make us act out empathetically, that is to feel out, that is, to identify with) the speaker and why he stopped. The man is the principle actor in this little 'drama of why' and in scene one he is the only character, though as noted, he is somehow related to the absent owner."

Not What, But How(!)	" ... the human insight of the poem and the technicalities of its poetic artifice are inseparable. Each feeds the other. That interplay is the poem’s meaning, a matter not of WHAT DOES IT MEAN, for no one can ever say entirely what a good poem means, but of HOW DOES IT MEAN, a process one can come much closer to discussing."


Historical Explanation

Disciplinary Rhetoric	The different explanatory disciplines have different modes of argumentation	"we will continue to explore different rhetorical styles but with greater focus on arguments within academic fields."

Evidence	What count as evidence in one discipline will not necessarily count as evidence in another discipline	"different rules of evidence pertain in arguing for a position" in different disciplines

Evidence E.G.	Phenomenological evidence ≠ Psychological evidence

Logical Analysis	The basis of logical analysis doesn't necessarily change from explanatory discipline to explanatory discipline	"The basic principles apply to [all of the disciplines], but each adheres to the conventions of the field in making a convincing case."

Historical Arguments	Interesting history requires interpretation	"the historian's mode of proof that events of the past should be interpreted in a certain way."

The Traditional View	"The traditional view of history is that it provides an accurate record of past human actions so that people living in the present can know their origins and feel a sense of orientation and belonging."

Context Benefit	With historical understanding, we gain an understanding of the historical context we find ourselves in	"if we want to know where we have come from, who preceded us, what led us to think as we do, why out culture developed as it did, we turn to the written record that is history."

Empires and the Peloponnesian War	"To make sense of what is going on, we have to understand what happened previously."

On the Concepts of Liberty	Negative Liberty Positive Liberty Historically prior notion of Negative Liberty

To Ignore History is to Repeat History	"We study history for what it can teach us, so that we do not reinvent the same ideas or make the same mistakes, and we try to see what forces have been set in motion for the future." "A fundamental tenet of historians is that those who ignore history are in danger of repeating it, while those who learn from history build on the cumulative experience of humankind."	"we also seek lessons in history, not just a chronology of past events but their meaning for the present."

Derp!	Lake Forest Councilwoman Marcia Rudolph: "'If we don't follow history we will be doomed to follow our mistakes.'" http://articles.ocregister.com/2011-01-19/news/ 27039766_1_national-motto-jacquie-sullivan-vote

Skepticism of the Traditional View	"Some new historians have challenged the assumption that history is an objective account of events, offering genuine knowledge of our past and instructions for our future."	"In recent years, however, this view of history as disclosing our roots and offering perspective, providing a context for human actions has come in for a certain amount of criticism." "The question whether historical accounts can be proven, whether historians can really tell us the truth, and they ridicule objectivity as a "cult of facts" or "scientific history."

Observer Contingency	"such factors as race, class, and gender; religion, politics, and economics; nationality; education; age; and times will determine the selection (or omission) of evidence and the meaning placed upon the facts of the past."

On the Model of Legal Realism	Radin: laws are "what courts and partly irresponsible administrative agencies will do or say within the limits set by statutes and public opinion" What fills the gap? A judge's A) Psychological constitution and/or B) Socio-economic background

	"Therefore, it is claimed, different histories will be written depending upon the circumstances of the historian."

Observer Contingency E.G / "Slave Trade" v. "Atlantic Triangular Trade"	Consider a debate from last year over what to teach in Texas: "Conservatives say that the changes are a long-overdue correction to a curriculum that too often deemphasizes religion and caters to liberal views. Critics are dismayed at what they see as an attempt to push conservative ideology–even if it flies in the face of scholarship–into textbooks." "The slave trade would be renamed the 'Atlantic triangular trade,' American 'imperialism' changed to “expansionism,” and all references to 'capitalism' have been replaced with 'free enterprise.'" "The role of Thomas Jefferson–who argued for the separation of church and state–is minimized in several places, and the standards would emphasize the degree to which the Founding Fathers were driven by Christian principles." "'In the 18 months that the state board has worked on these standards, they’ve struck a balance that our members feel will give public school students a fuller and stronger appreciation of the religious and cultural roots of American history,' says Brent Connett, a policy analyst with the Texas Conservative Coalition, which released a letter this week calling on the board to approve the standards and to ignore calls for delay." http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Education/ 2010/0519/Texas-textbook-war- Slavery-or-Atlantic-triangular-trade/(page)/2

Reader Contingencies	Likewise, the reader's perspective will influence the interpretation of historical interpretations	"Not only that, but the account that is given will be interpreted by each reader in a different way depending upon the beliefs and perceptions that he or she brings to it."

		"The individual reader will decide whether a given account is more or less valuable, revealing, interesting, or accurate."

	"In short, the contemporary skeptic claims that all histories are subjective throughout, and that no historian can claim to take an impartial, omniscient view of events, disclosing what actually happened."	"The truth, then, is thought to be invented rather than discovered because we can never get past the distortions and projections of the historian's mentality to the real events that occurred."

Evaluation of Skeptic's Position	"Although historians can never be wholly unbiased in their analyses, and readers of history cannot be entirely object in their interpretations of what is claimed, that does not mean that history should not be believed." "It simply suggests that certainty is not possible in historical narrative."	"Such a view seems an exaggeration."

Addressing the Skeptic	"We can assume, however, that with proper sensitivity to personal bias and distortions, the historian can render an account that is basically accurate and reliable."	"It may be altered in the future the way that scientific knowledge changes, but that does not imply that history is a fabrication, made up according to the subjective biases of the historian."

	"if we make proper allowance for [diverse] perspectives, then the history that is written can be taken as reasonably trustworthy."

Method	Consult relevant documents Stratify sources Primary and Secondary sources	"consult the most relevant documents for the period that is the focus of the study." "sources must be sufficiently broad, varied, and extensive to provide a fair picture" "include not only primary sources" but also "secondary sources in the work of other historians"

	"Then these documents must be arranged according to some ordering principle, sifted and compared so that they form an explanatory pattern of the era."	"Trends and movements will emerge that must be traced and highlighted"

Goals	"The historian needs to describe the various influences on the age, the climate of opinion or intellectual atmosphere, and the effect of the period of history on subsequent" times "Above all, the historian will attempt to show the meaning of the events so that readers will understand the significance of the period to human existence."

Speculative History in Classic Philosophical Arguments	There are a number of creation myths Aristophanes' myth of the creation of individuals and love Plato's creation story about the polis Aristotle's creation story about the polis Hobbes' creation story about the state Nietzsche's creation stories about the individual out of the community Nietzsche's creation story about the creation of "human"