Philosophy
6: Logic in Practice
Los Angeles Pierce College
Department of History, Philosophy, & Sociology
Lecture Notes
Lecture Notes for
"Chapter Three: Language and Definition" of Porter's The Voice of Reason
Part One Types of
Definitions: Stipulative
and Reportive
Practically Speaking
"Definitions provide
us with an effective way of organizing our experience, and to enlarge our
vocabulary is to enable ourselves to think in new ways"
"We must be sensitive
to the way language can distort reality, but in general definitions enrich our
understanding."
Stipulative Definitions
Proposed conventional
meanings
Sometimes context
dependent
"Stipulative
definitions are ... proposals to assign a certain meaning to a word in a given
context."
Stipulative, arbitrary
definitions
Stipulative, restrictive
definitions
Arbitrary Stipulative Definitions
"In the arbitrary
type [of stipulative definitions] people stipulate
that, for their purposes, an invented word will henceforth carry a particular
meaning"
"In general, the
arbitrary kind of stipulative definition consists of
a new word proposed by someone in authority to stand for a freshly discovered
object or event" "For
the most part, [stipulative definitions] are new
coinages when no word exists in the language for what people want to
describe."
"New words introduced
into a language are called neologisms."
The Need for Arbitrary Stipulative Definitions
A new phenomenon for which
we have no word is discovered "words
[are] created because of a need to name a new [or hitherto undiscovered]
phenomenon, and the words [are] defined as meaning that phenomenon."
E.G.s
Superego
Email
Outercourse
Protention
Refudiate?
"For example, Sigmund
Freud invented three terms to stand for the fundamental energy systems of the
psyche: The 'id' represents primal upsurging desires;
the 'ego' means control by rationality and realism; and the 'superego' means
the internalized social rules, manifested chiefly in the form of
conscience."
Arbitrary Stipulative Definitions / Acronyms
"words formed from
the initial letters of a phrase" "In
the category of arbitrary stipulative meanings are
also acronyms, or words formed from the initial letters of a phrase."
E.G.s
Nimby: not in my back yard
(light-rail to the ocean through the westside?
Scuba: self-contained
underwater breathing apparatus
Snafu: situation normal:
all fucked up
Restrictive Stipulative Definitions
"proposals to
restrict a word's meaning to some specialized sense of a term"
"In stipulative definitions of a restrictive kind an attempt is
made to reduce vagueness and ambiguity to a minimum, and to confine the usage
to very narrow limits"
"Stipulative
definitions can also be proposals to restrict a word's meaning to some
specialized sense of a term."
"Notice is usually
given to the reader or listener that a key term will be used in an unusual,
precise, or specialized way."
E.G.s
Vehicle
Consciousness
Drugs
"a judge might rule
that 'drugs' are 'those substances that produce physiological addiction in the
majority of users, and therefore include heroin, cocaine, and tobacco. Television and the internet do not
qualify.'"
Reportive Definitions
"A reportive definition ... gives an explanation of the
general meaning a word carries for a group of language users"
"Depending on how
accurately they reflect actual usage, they can be said to have correct or
incorrect definitions"
http://www.urbandictionary.com/
"Reportive
definitions are a second type [of definition], and here we can judge them right
or wrong."
Lexical
A dictionary-maker's
definition
"Sometimes this type
of definition is called 'lexical' because it is the lexicographer's or
dictionary-maker's definition."
"When we consult a
dictionary to find a word's meaning, we expect to find a report of the word's
general usage."
Reportive Definition E.G.
Eminent
"For example, we
might check a dictionary for the reportive definition
of the word ... 'eminent' [which] differs from 'immanent' and 'immanent.' Consulting the dictionary
we find that 'eminent' means standing out, whereas something 'imminent' is
about to happen, and something immanent' lies within."
Lexicographic Authority
Champagne
"Although
lexicographers usually report how a word is used, sometimes they take on the
role of an authority and tell us how a word should be used."
"That is, some
dictionaries become gatekeepers of the language and dictate the proper meaning
of a word."
Historical Reports
"sometimes [reportive definitions] will include former usages as
explanations of a word's historical meaning"
"These past or
archaic sense can provide background interest and shed light on a word's
present meaning, however, on should not assume that the original meaning of a
word is its real meaning."
E.G.s of Historical
Reports
Nice
"In the twenty-first
century 'nice' means pleasant, in Elizabethan times it means fastidious, in Old
French silly, and in Latin ignorant (nescius)."
Trying It Out
IV. 1
IV. 2
IV. 3
V. 2
V. 9
VI. 3
VI. 4
Synonym
In synonym definition,
"another word is offered that has approximately the same meaning as the
first" "Synonyms
constitute a third type of definition, and here another word is offered that
has approximately the same meaning as the first."
Effective Use of Synonyms
Effectiveness depends on
audience's vocabulary
From the known to the
unknown
not
From the unknown to the
unknown
"the synonym must be
a word that is understood, otherwise the meaning of the original word will not
be clarified."
Good v Bad Synonym
Definitions
Good: Close
Bad: Distant
Not At
All: Identical
"In [synonym]
definitions the word that is presented as synonymous should be as close as
possible in meaning to the word that we are trying to define."
Synonyms More Specific
Application
"Sometimes what we
think is a synonym may be just a more specific application of a word. For example, the word 'carve' translates
to several separate words depending on what meat or fish is being carved. This is especially true in Elizabethan
usage. A pheasant was allayed, a
plover (a shore bird) minced, a hen spoiled, a rabbit unlaced, a crane
displayed, a boar leached, a dear broken, a sturgeon tranched,
an eel transoned, a lamprey strung, a pigeon thighed, and a porgy splayed"
Example Definitions
"Example definitions
explain the meaning of a word by mentioning some instances of it" "In terms of our discussion of
extension, [example definitions] explain a meaning by pointing out some of the
members of the class."
"Once we know the
range of things referred to by a term (assuming it is referential), then we
have a clearer understanding of its meaning."
Example Definition E.G.
Like
Like, OMG! "In slang when we try to explain
something by using 'like,' we are creating mini scenarios to portray our
feelings. We might say for example,
'Like, give me a break' or 'I'm like, what's her problem.'"
Ostensive Definition
This!
Ostensive Definition
A presentation of some
object (or the like) to which a word applies
If it "is a firsthand
experience, and no description of characteristics will convey the meaning
adequately," then an ostensive definition may be in order
"Sometimes a
description of the experiences or a catalog of examples is not enough of an
explanation, and we can only show the object, event, or characteristic to which
a word applies. Then we have an
ostensive definition."
"Whether we show part
of the extension of a term, describe the experience, or show the object, an
example definition can bring home a word's meaning with an immediacy and
vividness not found in other types of definitions"
Trying it Out
VII. 4
VII. 9
VIII. 5
VIII. 6
VIII. 9
IX. 6
IX. 10
X. 5
Part Two Avoiding Definition
Mistakes
Standards Needed
"stipulative
definitions must be psychologically acceptable"
"reportive
definitions must reflect conventional usage."
"In forming sound
definitions, whether stipulative, reportive,
synonym, or example, certain standards must be
met."
"These standards make
the definition reliable, keep it honest."
Standard: Avoid Circularity
A circular definition
usually repeats the defined word in the definition ... ."
E.G.: A circular definition is a definition
that is circular "definitions
should not be circular. A circular
definition usually repeats the defined word in the definition ... ."
"To define 'cookbook'
as 'a book used to cook' is not very informative."
Conditioned Response E.G.
Conditioned response:
"'a response to
conditioning'"
vs.
"'a reflexive,
learned reaction to the introduction of given stimuli'" "it would be informative to define
'conditioned response' as 'a reflexive, learned reaction to the introduction of
given stimuli' rather that as 'a response to conditioning;' the first tells us
exactly what is involved."
Opium
E.G. "'Opium puts people to sleep because
it has dormative powers"
Lectures
E.G. My lectures are boring because they are
dull
boring: not interesting
dull: lack interest
Avoid Circularity in
Mutual Definitions
A is defined as B
&
B is defined as A "A
definition is also circular when it defines two words in terms of each
other."
E.G. "'A cause is that which produces an
effect' and ' An effect is that which results from a cause'" "'up is that which is
above down,' and 'down is that which is just below up.'"
Standard: Scope
Definitions must fit and
should not
Exclude what ought to be
included
And
Include what out to be
excluded
Avoid "having
definitions that are too broad or two narrow"
Standard: Too Broad
A definition which is too
broad is defined as a definition that includes what ought to be excluded "If our definition is unduly broad it will
cover too much, failing to rule out things that are extraneous."
Too Broad E.G.
A lion is defined as a
feline
"to define 'lion'
simply as a feline would be too general, letting into the category jaguars,
tigers, panthers"
Music is defined as sound
"to define 'music'
simply as sound would qualify the noise of jackhammers, sirens, and traffic as
different kinds of music."
Standard: Too Narrow
A definition which is too
narrow is defined as a definition that excludes what ought to be included "If it
is too narrow it will cover too little, excluding things that should be
included within the term."
Too Narrow
E.G. "Human beings" are defined as
those things that are
"'intelligent, self-aware, tool-making, language-using animal with five senses,
emotions, movement, and moral, aesthetic, and religious
sensibilities'"
Standard: Metaphorical
Definitions
For those who do not know
a word's 'principle meaning,'
"To those familiar
with [terms defined metaphorically], the coloring adds interest, but it will
not help anyone who is ignorant of the principle meaning"
Metaphorical
E.G. A home is defined as "'where the
heart is'"
Standard: Loaded
Definitions
Loaded definitions express
"a value judgment and is not just a neutral description of conventional
meanings"
"Some definitions are
used for persuasive purposes and are charged with positive or negative
emotions"
"A loaded definition
has an 'attitude;' it expresses a value judgment and is not just a neutral
description of conventional meanings"
Loaded
E.G. "In the first dictionary, compiled
by Samuel Johnson, 'oats' is defined as 'a grain which in England is generally
given to horses but in Scotland sustains the people'"
Trying It Out
I. 2
I. 3
I. 5
I. 10
II. (not two, but one definition for each mistake)