Philosophy 6: Logic in Practice

Los Angeles Pierce College

Department of History, Philosophy, & Sociology

 

 

 

 

 

Lecture Notes

 

 

 

 

 

 

Lecture Notes for "Chapter Three: Language and Definition" of Porter's The Voice of Reason

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                 

Part One     Types of Definitions:  Stipulative and Reportive  

 

Practically Speaking      

"Definitions provide us with an effective way of organizing our experience, and to enlarge our vocabulary is to enable ourselves to think in new ways"

        

"We must be sensitive to the way language can distort reality, but in general definitions enrich our understanding." 

        

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

        

Stipulative Definitions   

Proposed conventional meanings

 

Sometimes context dependent       

 

"Stipulative definitions are ... proposals to assign a certain meaning to a word in a given context." 

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Stipulative, arbitrary definitions

 

­ 

 

Stipulative, restrictive definitions    

 

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Arbitrary Stipulative Definitions       

 

"In the arbitrary type [of stipulative definitions] people stipulate that, for their purposes, an invented word will henceforth carry a particular meaning"

 

"In general, the arbitrary kind of stipulative definition consists of a new word proposed by someone in authority to stand for a freshly discovered object or event"    "For the most part, [stipulative definitions] are new coinages when no word exists in the language for what people want to describe." 

 

"New words introduced into a language are called neologisms." 

 

 

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Need for Arbitrary Stipulative Definitions     

A new phenomenon for which we have no word is discovered        "words [are] created because of a need to name a new [or hitherto undiscovered] phenomenon, and the words [are] defined as meaning that phenomenon." 

                 

E.G.s

 

Superego

 

Email

 

Outercourse

 

Protention

 

Refudiate? 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"For example, Sigmund Freud invented three terms to stand for the fundamental energy systems of the psyche: The 'id' represents primal upsurging desires; the 'ego' means control by rationality and realism; and the 'superego' means the internalized social rules, manifested chiefly in the form of conscience." 

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Arbitrary Stipulative Definitions / Acronyms       

"words formed from the initial letters of a phrase"       "In the category of arbitrary stipulative meanings are also acronyms, or words formed from the initial letters of a phrase." 

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

E.G.s

 

Nimby: not in my back yard (light-rail to the ocean through the westside? 

 

Scuba: self-contained underwater breathing apparatus

 

Snafu: situation normal: all fucked up      

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                 

        

                 

Restrictive Stipulative Definitions    

"proposals to restrict a word's meaning to some specialized sense of a term"

 

"In stipulative definitions of a restrictive kind an attempt is made to reduce vagueness and ambiguity to a minimum, and to confine the usage to very narrow limits" 

 

"Stipulative definitions can also be proposals to restrict a word's meaning to some specialized sense of a term." 

 

"Notice is usually given to the reader or listener that a key term will be used in an unusual, precise, or specialized way." 

                 

E.G.s

 

Vehicle

 

Consciousness     

 

Drugs

 

"a judge might rule that 'drugs' are 'those substances that produce physiological addiction in the majority of users, and therefore include heroin, cocaine, and tobacco.  Television and the internet do not qualify.'" 

        

 

 

 

 

 

 

        

                 

Reportive Definitions    

"A reportive definition ... gives an explanation of the general meaning a word carries for a group of language users"

 

"Depending on how accurately they reflect actual usage, they can be said to have correct or incorrect definitions"

 

http://www.urbandictionary.com/

"Reportive definitions are a second type [of definition], and here we can judge them right or wrong." 

 

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Lexical       

A dictionary-maker's definition        

"Sometimes this type of definition is called 'lexical' because it is the lexicographer's or dictionary-maker's definition." 

 

"When we consult a dictionary to find a word's meaning, we expect to find a report of the word's general usage." 

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Reportive Definition E.G.        

 

Eminent

 

"For example, we might check a dictionary for the reportive definition of the word ... 'eminent' [which] differs from 'immanent' and 'immanent.'  Consulting the dictionary we find that 'eminent' means standing out, whereas something 'imminent' is about to happen, and something immanent' lies within." 

                 

 

 

 

 

Lexicographic Authority         

 

Champagne

 

"Although lexicographers usually report how a word is used, sometimes they take on the role of an authority and tell us how a word should be used." 

 

"That is, some dictionaries become gatekeepers of the language and dictate the proper meaning of a word." 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                 

Historical Reports

"sometimes [reportive definitions] will include former usages as explanations of a word's historical meaning"  

 

"These past or archaic sense can provide background interest and shed light on a word's present meaning, however, on should not assume that the original meaning of a word is its real meaning." 

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

E.G.s of Historical Reports      

 

Nice

 

"In the twenty-first century 'nice' means pleasant, in Elizabethan times it means fastidious, in Old French silly, and in Latin ignorant (nescius)." 

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Trying It Out       

 

IV. 1

 

IV. 2

 

IV. 3

 

V. 2

 

V. 9

 

VI. 3

 

VI. 4

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Synonym   

In synonym definition, "another word is offered that has approximately the same meaning as the first"          "Synonyms constitute a third type of definition, and here another word is offered that has approximately the same meaning as the first." 

                 

Effective Use of Synonyms    

Effectiveness depends on audience's vocabulary

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

From the known to the unknown

 

not

 

From the unknown to the unknown        

 

"the synonym must be a word that is understood, otherwise the meaning of the original word will not be clarified." 

 

 

                 

Good v Bad Synonym Definitions    

 

Good:  Close

 

Bad:  Distant

 

Not At All:  Identical     

"In [synonym] definitions the word that is presented as synonymous should be as close as possible in meaning to the word that we are trying to define." 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                 

Synonyms ­ More Specific Application      

"Sometimes what we think is a synonym may be just a more specific application of a word.  For example, the word 'carve' translates to several separate words depending on what meat or fish is being carved.  This is especially true in Elizabethan usage.  A pheasant was allayed, a plover (a shore bird) minced, a hen spoiled, a rabbit unlaced, a crane displayed, a boar leached, a dear broken, a sturgeon tranched, an eel transoned, a lamprey strung, a pigeon thighed, and a porgy splayed"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                 

Example Definitions      

"Example definitions explain the meaning of a word by mentioning some instances of it"    "In terms of our discussion of extension, [example definitions] explain a meaning by pointing out some of the members of the class." 

 

"Once we know the range of things referred to by a term (assuming it is referential), then we have a clearer understanding of its meaning." 

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Example Definition E.G.

Like  

Like, OMG!  "In slang when we try to explain something by using 'like,' we are creating mini scenarios to portray our feelings.  We might say for example, 'Like, give me a break' or 'I'm like, what's her problem.'" 

        

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

        

Ostensive Definition     

This!          

 

                 

 

                 

                 

Ostensive Definition     

A presentation of some object (or the like) to which a word applies

 

If it "is a firsthand experience, and no description of characteristics will convey the meaning adequately," then an ostensive definition may be in order         

 

"Sometimes a description of the experiences or a catalog of examples is not enough of an explanation, and we can only show the object, event, or characteristic to which a word applies.  Then we have an ostensive definition." 

 

"Whether we show part of the extension of a term, describe the experience, or show the object, an example definition can bring home a word's meaning with an immediacy and vividness not found in other types of definitions" 

 

                 

Trying it Out       

 

VII. 4

 

VII. 9

 

VIII. 5

 

VIII. 6

 

VIII. 9

 

IX. 6

 

IX. 10

 

X. 5  

                 

 

 

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Part Two     Avoiding Definition Mistakes   

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Standards Needed        

 

"stipulative definitions must be psychologically acceptable"

 

"reportive definitions must reflect conventional usage."       

 

"In forming sound definitions, whether stipulative, reportive, synonym, or example, certain standards must be met." 

 

"These standards make the definition reliable, keep it honest." 

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Standard:  Avoid Circularity   

A circular definition usually repeats the defined word in the definition ... ." 

 

E.G.:  A circular definition is a definition that is circular         "definitions should not be circular.  A circular definition usually repeats the defined word in the definition ... ." 

 

"To define 'cookbook' as 'a book used to cook' is not very informative." 

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Conditioned Response E.G.    

 

Conditioned response: 

 

"'a response to conditioning'"

 

vs.

 

"'a reflexive, learned reaction to the introduction of given stimuli'" "it would be informative to define 'conditioned response' as 'a reflexive, learned reaction to the introduction of given stimuli' rather that as 'a response to conditioning;' the first tells us exactly what is involved." 

        

 

 

 

 

 

        

Opium

E.G.   "'Opium puts people to sleep because it has dormative powers" 

 

        

                 

Lectures

E.G.   My lectures are boring because they are dull

 

boring: not interesting

 

dull: lack interest

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Avoid Circularity in Mutual Definitions      

 

A is defined as B

 

&

 

B is defined as A   "A definition is also circular when it defines two words in terms of each other." 

                 

E.G.   "'A cause is that which produces an effect' and ' An effect is that which results from a cause'"     "'up is that which is above down,' and 'down is that which is just below up.'" 

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Standard:  Scope

 

Definitions must fit and should not

 

Exclude what ought to be included

 

And

 

Include what out to be excluded     

 

Avoid "having definitions that are too broad or two narrow"

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Standard:  Too Broad    

A definition which is too broad is defined as a definition that includes what ought to be excluded "If our definition is unduly broad it will cover too much, failing to rule out things that are extraneous." 

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Too Broad E.G.    

 

A lion is defined as a feline

 

"to define 'lion' simply as a feline would be too general, letting into the category jaguars, tigers, panthers"

 

 

 

Music is defined as sound

 

"to define 'music' simply as sound would qualify the noise of jackhammers, sirens, and traffic as different kinds of music." 

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Standard:  Too Narrow 

A definition which is too narrow is defined as a definition that excludes what ought to be included        "If it is too narrow it will cover too little, excluding things that should be included within the term." 

                 

Too Narrow

E.G.   "Human beings" are defined as

 

those things that are "'intelligent, self-aware, tool-making, language-using animal with five senses, emotions, movement, and moral, aesthetic, and religious sensibilities'" 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                 

Standard: Metaphorical Definitions  

For those who do not know a word's 'principle meaning,'

 

"To those familiar with [terms defined metaphorically], the coloring adds interest, but it will not help anyone who is ignorant of the principle meaning"

                 

Metaphorical

E.G.   A home is defined as "'where the heart is'"       

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Standard: Loaded Definitions

Loaded definitions express "a value judgment and is not just a neutral description of conventional meanings"        

"Some definitions are used for persuasive purposes and are charged with positive or negative emotions" 

 

"A loaded definition has an 'attitude;' it expresses a value judgment and is not just a neutral description of conventional meanings"

                 

Loaded

E.G.   "In the first dictionary, compiled by Samuel Johnson, 'oats' is defined as 'a grain which in England is generally given to horses but in Scotland sustains the people'"  

                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Trying It Out       

 

I. 2

 

I. 3

 

I. 5

 

I. 10

 

II.  (not two, but one definition for each mistake)