Reading Notes by Christopher Lay

Los Angeles Pierce College

Department of History, Philosophy, and Sociology

Behrens, Laurence and Leonard J. Rosen. A Sequence for Academic Writing. 5^th Ed.

"Chapter 1"	"Summary, Paraphrase, and Quotation"	Behrens, Laurence and Leonard J. Rosen. A Sequence for Academic Writing. 5^th Ed.
Summaries	What are summaries? 1) Summarizations are Representations. 2) Representations ≠ Things Represented. 3) Representations < Things Represented. 4) Subtracting from Things Represented is an act of interpretation. 5) Interpretations are subject to evaluation. 6) There are good summaries and bad summaries.
Good Summaries	A) Objective: do not misrepresent that which is summarized B) Purpose: focus on central idea C) Brevity: exclude superfluous details
Guidelines	"These pointers are not meant to be ironclad rules; rather, they are designed to encourage habits of thinking that will allow you to very your technique as the situation demands."
"Read the passage carefully"	Try and understand the passage to be summarized in its relation to the text in its entirety. Note the structure of the text in the margins as you read. Sometimes the best way is to read the text the first time rather quickly (cf. ice skating analogy).
"Reread"	Try and understand the passage to be summarized as well as possible. Reread the passage that you are to summarize a number of times. Bleed in the margins (cf. slurping analogy).
"Write a thesis–a one- or two-sentence summary of the entire passage"	Crystalize the main point of what you are summarizing.
"Write the first draft of your summary"	Add only the details needed to explain/support your crystallization.
"Check your summary against the original passage"	Use this too often overlooked step to ensure objectivity.
Paraphrase	When you paraphrase, you express someone else's words with your own words.
Not a Summary	Whereas summaries condense material down, paraphrases do not.
Reasons to Paraphrase	A) Original wording is "dense, abstract, archaic, or possibly confusing"–to clarify what might be unclear B) Help yourself understand the words you are paraphrasing C) To "maintain a consistent tone and level in your essay"
Substitution	Try substituting different words, making sure that you understand the definitions of the original words and the words you substitute them with.
Sentence Order	"Sentence structure, even sentence order, in the paraphrase need not be based on that of the original."
Quoting	Quotes are a dangerous, addictive drug. In this part of chapter one we'll learn how to manage this drug to avoid becoming addicted to it.
Your Paper, Your Paper	Your paper should be your paper.	"[T]he papers you write should be your own–for the most part: your own language and certainly your own thesis, your own inferences, and your own conclusion."
Presenting Others'	Thus, when you present others, "your source materials," you should present them in your own words as much as possible, quoting only where needed.	"It follows that references to your source materials should be written primarily as summaries and paraphrases, both of which are built on restatement, not quotation."
		"When you quote too much, you risk losing ownership of your work: More easily than you might think, your voice can be drowned out by the voices of those you've quoted."
Spice Analogy	"So use quotation sparingly, as you would a pungent spice."
When Necessary	When quoting is necessary, quoting correctly improves your essay.
Types of Quoting	Direct v. Indirect Despite their difference (which we'll get into next), both direct and indirect quotes require that you cite your sources. Who uttered or wrote what you are quoting? Where did was what you quoted uttered or written?
Direct	Direct quotations are in quotation marks and are faithful to the words and meanings originally expressed.
Indirect	Indirect quotations are not in quotation marks and are faithful to the meanings originally expressed.	"An indirect quotation is one in which you report what someone has said without repeating the words exactly as spoken (or written)."
Liberty	"When using an indirect quotation, you have the liberty of changing words (although not changing meaning)."
Only Quote What is Necessary	"Use no more of the writer's language than necessary to make or reinforce your point."
"Choosing Quotations"	Memorable Language Clarity and Economy Authority
Memorable Language	"Use quotations when another writer's language is particularly memorable and will add interest and liveliness to your paper."
Clarity and Economy	"Use quotations when another writer's language is so clear and economical that to make the same point in your own words would, by comparison, be ineffective."
Authority	"Use quotations when you want the solid reputation of a source to lend authority and credibility to your own writing."
Appositives	Appositives "rename the nouns they follow by providing explicit, identifying detail." "Any information about a person that can be expressed in the following sentence pattern can be made into an appositive phrase:" Modigliani Anstoss Kimodo is the world's crankiest one-legged honeybadger. Modigliani Anstoss Kimodo lost an arm wrestling match to Xochiquetzal Gila H-y-L. Xochiquetzal Gila H-y-L is the world's 2,500,732,498^th most interesting person. Here is how that information can be turned into appositives: Modigliani Anstoss Kimodo, the world's crankiest one-legged honeybadger, lost an arm wrestling contest to Xochiquetzal Gila H-y-L, the world's 2,500,732,498^th most interesting person.
"Incorporation Quotations into Your Sentences"	"[W]ork the material into your paper in as natural and fluid a manner as possible."
No Quote is an Island	"A quoted sentence should never stand by itself ... ."
	"You need to introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that attributes the source, not in a parenthetical citation by in some other part of the sentence–beginning, middle, or end."
Avoid Blandness	"When attributing sources in single phrases, try to vary the standard states, writes, says, and so on. Stronger verbs you might consider are: asserts, argues, maintains, insists, asks, and even wonders."
"Using Ellipses"	When you need to quote the beginning and ending of a sentence, but not bits in the middle, use ellipses.
	"Whenever you quote a sentence but delete words from it ... indicate this deletion to the reader with three spaced periods–called and 'ellipsis'–in the sentence at the point of the deletion."
"Using Brackets to Add or Substitute Words"	To make your quotation clear, you sometimes need to add or substitute words, and when you do that, use brackets (, i.e., "[" and "]") for the added or substituted words.
On Adding	"You will ... need to add bracketed information to a quoted sentence when a reference is essential to the sentence's meaning is implied but not stated directly."
Recap
When to Summarize?	"To present main points of a lengthy passage" "To condense peripheral points necessary to discussion"
When to Paraphrase?	"To clarify a short passage" "To emphasize main points"
When to Quote?	"To capture another writer's particularly memorable language" "To capture another writer's clearly and economically stated language" "To lend authority and credibility to your own writing"
My Particular View	Quoting is usually necessary when: 1) attributing something controversial to the person quoted, 2) you are pointing out something that is too easily overlooked, or 3) your entire thesis depends on particular wording, or 4) there just is no better way of putting it. Bad quoting occurs, in my mind, when it seems like: 1) you have nothing to say and so are throwing in quotes, 2) you are using long quotes to fluff up your essay, or 3) you are afraid to commit to a paraphrase, when a paraphrase would convey the same information.
EXPLAIN!	Quotes can't interpret themselves.
Other's Views on Quoting	What follows are some notes from Gerald Graff & Cathy Birkenstein's "They Say, I Say" composition textbook.
Quantity of Quotes Aside ...	"[T]he main problem with quotation arises when writers assume that quotations speak for themselves."
Psychic	While the meaning of a quotation may be obvious to you, it may not be obvious to your readers. Don't always assume that your reader knows what you know about a quotation. Readers aren't psychic.	"Because the meaning of a quotation is obvious to them, many writers assume that this meaning will also be obvious to their readers, when often it is not."
"quotations are orphans"	"In a way, quotations are orphans: words that have been taken from their original contexts and that need to be integrated into their new textual surroundings."	"quoting means more than simply enclosing what 'they say' in quotation marks."
...	"quoting what "they say" must always be connected with what you say."
"Quote Relevant Passages"	But what to quote?
Why Quote at All?	The inclusion of quotations is not to show that you've done some assigned reading. Include quotations to support your argument.	"Be careful not to select quotations just for the sake of demonstrating that you've read the author's work; you need to make sure they support your own argument."
Quotations Aren't Orphans	You can abandon a quotation if you discover you don't need it. You are not married to quotations once you write them out. If you discover that a quotation is no longer necessary, get rid of it.	"Given the evolving and messy nature of writing, you may sometimes think that you've found the perfect quotation to support your argument, only to discover later on, as your text develops, that your focus has changed and the quotation no longer works."
"Frame Every Quotation"	From what we've seen, quotations require framing	"Since quotations do not speak for themselves, you need to build a frame around them in which you do that speaking for them."
	"[P]resent [quotations] in a way that makes their relevance and meaning clear to your readers."	"Finding relevant quotations is only part of your job; you also need to present them in a way that makes their relevance and meaning clear to your readers."
The Frame	Introduce the quotation. Present the quotation. Explain the quotation.	"To adequately frame a quotation, you need to insert it into what we like to call a 'quotation sandwich,' with the statement introducing it serving as the top slice of bread and the explanation following it serving as the bottom slice."
The Presentation	"use language that accurately reflects the spirit of the quoted passage."	"When offering such introductory phrases, it is important to use language that accurately reflects the spirit of the quoted passage."
The Explanation	The "follow-up statements should explain why you consider the quotation to be important and what you take it to say."	"The introductory or lead-in claims should explain who is speaking and set up what the quotation says; the follow-up statements should explain why you consider the quotation to be important and what you take it to say."
Playing it Safe	When in doubt, aim to over-explain as opposed to under-explain	"It is better to risk being overly explicit about what you take a quotation to mean than to leave the quotation dangling and your readers in doubt."
Why?	Even when you are "preaching to the choir" it is important to expose your understanding of a quote with your explanation of it.	"provide such explanatory framing even when writing to an audience that you know to be familiar with the author being quoted and able to interpret your quotations on their own."
	"readers need to see how you interpret the quotation, since words–especially those of controversial figures–can be interpreted in various ways and used to support different, sometimes opposing, agendas."
	"Your readers need to see what you make of the material you've quoted, if only to be sure that your reading of the material and theirs is on the same page."
	This concludes our leaning on Gerald Graff & Cathy Birkenstein's "They Say, I Say" composition textbook.

Behrens, Laurence and Leonard J. Rosen. A Sequence for Academic Writing. 5^th Ed.

"Chapter 2"	"Critique"	Behrens, Laurence and Leonard J. Rosen. A Sequence for Academic Writing. 5^th Ed.
The Questions	There are at least two questions to ask when engaging in critical reading and writing. "(1) To what extent does the author succeed in his or her purpose?" "(2) To what extent do you agree with the author?"
Summarization	Being able to summarize what you are critically engaging with is crucial.
Purpose	With a summarization in hand, you can better understand the author's purpose. "[I]f the finished piece is coherent, it will have a primary reason for having been written, and it should be apparent that the author is attempting to primarily inform, persuade, or entertain a particular audience."
What You Bring	"As a critical reader, you bring various criteria, or standards of judgment, to bear ... ."
"Evaluating Informative Writing"	Is the information accurate? Is the information significant? Is the information interpreted fairly?
Persuasive Writing	Persuasive writing requires a thesis. Recall that a thesis is original, argumentative, and interesting. Theses are "conclusions that authors have drawn as a result of researching and thinking about an issue."
Support	Theses are not worth much without support. Evidence and arguments are needed to support theses.
"Evaluating Persuasive Writing"	"You can assess the validity of an argument and its conclusion by determining whether the author has (1) clearly defined key terms, (2) used information fairly, and (3) argued logically and not fallaciously."
"Avoiding Logical Fallacies"	Loaded terms Against the person Causation ≠ correlation False dichotomies Hasty generalizations False analogy Begging the question Non Sequitur Oversimplification
Q2	"(2) To what extent do you agree with the author?"
	Agreeing, disagreeing, or both, to some extent or another
Either Way	Begin with a summarization. Express your position. Explain why you have that position. Argue for why having the position you have is the correct way to go.
Support	"Any [position] that you express is effective to the extent you support it by supplying evidence from your reading (which should be properly cited), your observation, or your personal experience."
W/Out Support	Without that support, you merely have an opinion.
Reasons	There are a number of reasons for agreeing or disagreeing.
Assumptions	Good arguments that rest atop bad assumptions aren't that good.
	"How do you determine the validity of assumptions once you have identified them? In the absence of more scientific criteria, you start by considering how well the author's assumptions stack up against your own experience, observations, reading, and values–while remaining honestly aware of the limits of your own personal knowledge."
Critique	Suppose you've found an underlying assumption that you object to. How to critique and argument with a questionable assumption?
	A critique is "a systematic evaluation." "Is the information accurate?" "Is the information significant?" "Has the author defined terms clearly?" "Has the author used and interpreted information fairly?" "Has the author argued logically?"

Behrens, Laurence and Leonard J. Rosen. A Sequence for Academic Writing. 5^th Ed.

"Chapter 3"	"Explanatory Synthesis"	Behrens, Laurence and Leonard J. Rosen. A Sequence for Academic Writing. 5^th Ed.
	"A synthesis is a written discussion that draws on two or more sources." "In a synthesis, you make explicit the relationships that you have inferred among separate sources."
Summarizing Sources	"Readers will frequently benefit from at least partial summaries of sources in your synthesis essays."
Beyond Summaries	"At the same time, you must go beyond summary to make judgements–judgements based on your critical reading of your sources ... ."
Inferences	"In a synthesis, you go beyond the critique of individual sources to determine the relationship among them," via inference.
Parts	In synthesizing sources, you seldom will synthesize all of a source. Rather, you select parts for synthesis. Which parts?
Purpose	Your purpose in writing determines which parts of a source you will synthesize.
	"Some relationships among the material in your sources must make them worth synthesizing."
	"Your purpose determines which sources you research, which ones you use, which parts of them you use, at which points in your paper you use them, and in what manner you relate them to one another."
Types of Synthesis	Explanatory Synthesis ≠ Argumentative Synthesis
Analogy	"The easiest way to recognize the difference between the two types [of synthesis] may be to consider the difference between a news article and an editorial on the same subject." Just as news articles seek, primarily, to inform, explanatory syntheses seek to impartially inform. And just as editorials seek, primarily, to interpret information or events, argumentative syntheses present information to prove some point or interpretation.
Writing a Synthesis	Identify your purpose. Select sources accordingly. Formulate your thesis. Summarize the relevant parts of your sources. Revise your synthesis as needed, recursively.
Purpose v. Thesis	"The difference between a purpose and a thesis is primarily a difference in focus." "Your purpose provides direction to your research and gives a focus to your paper." "Your thesis sharpens this focus by narrowing it and formulating it in the words of a single declarative statement."
Thesis Placement	"When you write your synthesis drafts, you will need to consider where your thesis fits in your paper." "Sometimes the thesis is the first sentence, but more often it is the final sentence of the first paragraph." I argue that it is best placed in the middle of your first paragraph, so that you can introduce your reader to the argument you'll use to support your thesis in the rest of the first paragraph.
Recursively	"The writing of syntheses is a recursive process, and you should accept a certain amount of backtracking and reformulating as inevitable." "[T]hrough backtracking and reformulating, you will produce a coherent, well-crafted paper."
Concluding	Here is a concluding thought on explanatory syntheses: "Your job in writing an explanatory paper–or in writing the explanatory part of an argumentative paper is not to argue a particular point, but rather to present the facts in a reasonably objective manner."

Behrens, Laurence and Leonard J. Rosen. A Sequence for Academic Writing. 5^th Ed.

"Chapter 4"	"Argument Synthesis"	Behrens, Laurence and Leonard J. Rosen. A Sequence for Academic Writing. 5^th Ed.
Argument	Persuasion	"An argument is an attempt to persuade a reader or listener that a particular and debatable claim is true."
Support	The ability to persuade frequently depends on the ability to support one's conclusions.	"The extent to which readers (or listeners) accept these findings will depend on the quality of the supporting evidence and the care with which the researchers have argued their case."
Synthetic	In synthetic arguments, multiple sources are employed.	"What we are calling an argument synthesis draws upon evidence from a variety of sources in an attempt to persuade others of the truth or validity of a debatable claim."
Theses Needed	The thesis in an argumentative synthesis "is a claim about which reasonable people could disagree."
	"It is a claim with which–given the right arguments–your audience might be persuaded to agree."
	"The strategy of your argument synthesis is therefore to find and use convincing support for your claim."
"The Elements of Argument"	"Claim, Support and Assumption"
Claim	"A claim is a proposition or conclusion that you are trying to prove."
Support	"You prove your claim by using support in the form of fact, statistics, or expert opinion."
Assumption	"Linking your supporting evidence to your claim is your assumption about the subject." An assumption in this context "is an underlying belief or principle about some aspect of the world and how it operates."
Logic	"For the most part, arguments should be constructed logically so that assumptions link evidence (supporting facts, statistics, and expert opinions) to claims."
"The Three Appeals of Arguments"	"Logos, Ethos, Pathos"
Academic Settings	"[I]n academic writing, the appeal to logic (logos) is by far the most commonly used appeal."
Logos	"Logos is the rational appeal, the appeal to reason."
Effectiveness	"If writers and speakers expect to persuade their audiences, they must argue logically and must supply appropriate evidence to support their case."
Forms	Deductive ≠ Inductive Reasoning
Deductive	"The deductive argument begins with a generalization, then cites a specific case related to that generalization from which follows a conclusion."
Inductive	The inductive argument begins with "several pieces of specific evidence" and then concludes on the basis of that evidence.
Ethos	"Ethos, or the ethical appeal, is based not on the ethics relating to the subject under discussion, but rather on the ethical status of the person making the argument."
Presenter's Credibility	"A person making an argument must have a certain degree of credibility: That person must be of good character, have a sound sense, and be qualified to argue based either on expert experience with the subject matter or on carefully conducted research."
Composition Students' Credibility	"Students writing in academic settings establish their appeal to ethos by developing presentations that are well organized, carefully reasoned, and thoroughly referenced with source citations."
Pathos	Pathos is an appeal to emotions.
Academic	It is rarely employed well in academic settings, and is usually found in popular arguments.
	"The emotional appeal becomes problematic only when it is the sole or primary basis of the argument."
Limits	Logos is frequently insufficient in the goal of persuasion. "In the real world, arguments don't operate like academic debates."
Comparing and Contrasting	Sometimes it is valuable to compare and contrast, either when executing an explanatory synthesis or an argumentative synthesis.
	Here, you "examine two subjects (or sources) [or cities] in terms of one another."
Subtleties	Frequently you will end up illuminating subtleties with your "multifaceted analysis" in comparing and contrasting.
Criteria	You'll need criteria for analysis, and this frequently comes from reading sources about the entities being compared and contrasted.
Criterion	In this case, a "criterion is a specific point to which both of your authors refer and about which they may agree or disagree."
Best Criteria	The best criteria allow you, of course, to do the comparing and contrasting, "but also to plumb deeper, exploring subtle yet significant comparisons and contrasts among details or subcomponents, which you can then relate to your overall thesis."
Orphan	Comparing and contrasting should not be abandoned; it is an effort that should almost always serve a different purpose, either to explain, persuade, or analyze.
Organizing	There are two main ways of comparing and contrasting: organization by source as opposed to organized by criteria.
By Source	When you organize by source you summarize the things you are comparing and contrasting first, in order, and then discuss their similarities and their differences.
By Criteria	When you organize by criteria you "discuss two sources simultaneously, examining the view of each [source] point by point (criterion by criterion), comparing and contrasting these views in the process."

Behrens, Laurence and Leonard J. Rosen. A Sequence for Academic Writing. 5^th Ed.

"Chapter 5"	"Analysis"	Behrens, Laurence and Leonard J. Rosen. A Sequence for Academic Writing. 5^th Ed.
	"What is an Analysis?"
The Action	Analysis is "a type of argument in which you study the parts of something ... to understand how it works, what it means, or why it might be significant."
Analytic Tools	Analyzers use "an analytic too: a principle or definition on the basis of which the subject of study can be divided into parts and examined."
The Results	The results of analysis depend on the tool used. The same subject of study can be analyzed in different ways, with different analytic tools. Inasmuch, the "choice of an analytic tool simultaneously creates and limits the possibilities of analysis."
Lens Analogy	"It's as if the writer of an analysis who adopts one analytic tool puts on a pair of glasses and sees an object in a specific way." "Another writer, using a different tool (and a different pair of glasses, sees the object differently."
The Power of Analysis	" ... it's ability to reveal objects or events in a way we would not otherwise have considered."
	"Locate and Apply an Analytic Tool"
General Purpose	By now it should be clear: "The general purpose of all analysis is to enhance one's understanding of the subject under consideration."
Evaluating Analyses	"A good analysis provides a valuable–if sometimes unusual or unexpected–point of view, a way of seeing, a way of interpreting some phenomenon, person, event, policy, or pattern of behavior that otherwise may appear random or unexplainable."
Writing	The authors give this advice for those who are tasked with writing an analysis: "consider these to general strategies: "[1] Locate an analytic tool–a principle or definition tht makes a general statement about the way something works, and "[2]" Systematically apply this principle or definition to the subject under consideration."
Clarity	"[W]hatever discipline you are working in, the first part of your analysis will clearly state which (and whose) principles and definitions you are applying." "For audiences unfamiliar with these principles, you will need to explain them; if you anticipate objections to their use, you will need to argue that they are legitimate principles capable of helping you conduct the analysis."
Practical Advice	1: "Create a context for your analysis. Introduce and summarize for the readers the object, event, or behavior to be analyzed. Present a strong case for why an analysis is needed: Give yourself a motivation to write, and give readers a motivation to read. Consider setting out a problem, puzzle, or question to be investigated."
	2. "Locate an analytic too: a principle or definition that will form the basis of your analysis. Plan to devote an early part of your analysis to arguing for the validity of this principle or definition if your audience is not likely to understand it or if they are unlikely to think that the principle or definition is not valuable."
	3. "Analyze your topic by applying your selected analytic tool to the topic's component elements. Systematically apply elements of the analytic tool to parts of the activity or object under study. You can do this by posing specific questions, based on your analytic principle or definition, about the object or phenomenon. Discuss what you find part by part (organized perhaps by questions (, in clearly defined subsections of the paper."
	4. "Conclude by stating clearly what is significant about your analysis. When considering your analytic paper as a whole, what new or interesting insights have you made concerning the object under study? To what extent has your application of the definition or principle helped you to explain how the object works, what it might mean, or why it is significant."
	"Formulate a Thesis"
Theses	The thesis for an analysis essay "compresses into a single sentence the main idea of your presentation." For me, a thesis must be original, interesting, and argumentative. For me, theses must be clearly stated. For me, theses must not only be clearly stated, but also preferably in the first paragraph (for shorter essays at least).
	"Write an Analysis, Not a Summary"
Mistake to Avoid	"The most common error made in writing analysis–an error that is fatal to the form–is to present readers with a summary only."
Success	"For analyses to succeed, you must apply a principle or definition and reach a conclusion about the object, event, or behavior you are examining."
The Role of Summarizations	"Summary is naturally a part of analysis; you will need to summarize the object or activity being examined and, depending on the audience's needs, summarize the principle or definition being applied." "But in analysis, you must take the next step and share insights that suggest the meaning or significance of some object, event, or behavior."
	"Answer the 'So What?' Question"
What Have You Learned?	"Have you learned anything significant through the analysis?" "If not, neither will readers, and they will turn away." "If you have gained important insights through your analysis, communicate them clearly." "At some point, pull together your related insights and say, in effect, 'Here's how it all adds up.'"
	"When Your Perspective Guides the Analysis"
Personal Perspective	"In some cases a writer's analysis of a phenomenon or a work of art may not result from anything as structured as a principle or definition [held by others]. It may follow from the writer's cultural or personal outlook, perspective, or interests."
Clarity	"If you find yourself writing an analysis guided by your own insights, not by someone else's, then you owe your reader a clear explanation of your guiding principles and the definitions by which you will probe the subject under study."

Chapter 6	"Writing as a Process"	Behrens, Laurence and Leonard J. Rosen. A Sequence for Academic Writing. 5^th Ed.
Writing & Thinking	Sometimes thoughts precede writing, and sometimes writing produces thoughts. The same sometimes applies to asking questions in class: you can raise your hand with a question in mind, but discover that as you ask your question you actually end up asking a different question.
	So what? The point is that by writing, or asking a questions in class, without first having a fully developed thought can be good as the process of writing and asking questions can help develop thought.
Stages	"Stages of the Writing Process"
"Understanding the task"	"Read–or create–the assignment. Understand its purpose, scope, and audience."
"Gathering data"	"Locate and review information–from sources and from your own experience–and formulate an approach.
"Invention"	"Use various techniques (e.g., listing, outlining, freewriting) to generate promising ideas and a particular approach to the assignment. Gather more data if needed. Aim for a working thesis, a tentative (but well-reasoned and well-informed) statement of the direction you intend to pursue."
"Drafting"	"Sketch the paper you intend to compose and then write all sections necessary to support the working thesis. Stop if necessary to gather more data. Typically, you will both follow you plan and revise and invent a new (or slightly new) plan as you write. Expect to discover key parts of your paper as you write."
"Revision"	Rewrite in order to make the draft coherent and unified." "Revise and the global level, reshaping your thesis and adding to, rearranging, or deleting paragraphs in order to support the thesis. Gather more data as needed to flesh out paragraphs in support of the thesis." "Revise at the local level of paragraphs, ensuring that each is well reasoned and supports the thesis."
"Editing"	"Revise at the sentence level for style and brevity. Revise for correctness: grammar, punctuation, usage, and spelling."
Invention	With an understanding of an assignment and data gathered, it is time for invention.
	" ... you can now frame your writing project: give it scope, develop your main idea, and create conditions for productive writing." "You must define what you are writing about, after all, and you do this in the invention stage."
Excellent Advice	Don't skip this stage. "Time spent narrowing your ideas to a manageable scope at the beginning of a project will pay dividends all through the writing process."
Scope	Papers head down the wrong track when writers choose topics that are too broad (resulting in the superficial treatment of subtopics), or too narrow (resulting in writings 'padding' their work to meet a length requirement."
Narrowing Tactics	A) Consider reading a survey article on the topic you are interested: "A general article may do the work for you by breaking up the larger topic down into smaller subtopics that you can explore, and perhaps, limit even further."
	B) Asking questions about your subject can help you limit it: "Who?" "Which aspects?" "Where?" "When?" "How?" "Why?"
"Inventions Strategies"	"Directed Freewriting" "Listing" "Outlining" "Clustering and Branching"
Drafting	"Stage 4"
	"Strategies for Writing the Paper"
Plans Help	Starting with a plan before writing the first draft often times helps. "Invention strategies" help formulate plans.	"Most [writers] need to plan the structure of a paper before they can sit down to write the first draft."
Questions to Help Formulate a Plan	" ... ask yourself: "What's the main point of my paper?" "What subpoints do I need to address in order to develop and support my main point?" "In what order should my points be arranged? (Do certain subpoints lead naturally to others?)"
		"At Stage 3, as you clarify the direction in which you believe your paper is heading, you ought to be able to formulate a preliminary thesis (see below)."
Rough at First	No matter how rough your working thesis is, it is a start, and you need a start to a working draft.	"Your thesis can be quite rough, but if you don't have some sense of your main point, writing the first draft won't be possible."
It'll Change	And expect to discover that by the end of your first working draft, you've explained, supported, and argued for a different thesis.	"Even if you begin with what you regard as a clearly stated point, don't be surprised if by the end of the draft–just at the point where you are summing up–you discover that the paper you have in fact written differs from the paper you intended to write."
	That was the point about how writing can inform thought.	"However firm your ideas may be when you begin, the act of writing a draft will usually clarify matters for you."
	"Writing a Thesis"
A Thesis Is ...	"A thesis ... is a one- or two-sentence summary of a paper's content."
	" ... the thesis is an assertion about the content–for instance, what the content is, how it works, what it means, if it is valuable, if action should be taken, and so on."	"Whether explanatory, mildly argumentative, or strongly argumentative, the thesis is an assertion about the content–for instance, what the content is, how it works, what it means, if it is valuable, if action should be taken, and so on."
Resonance w/ Conclusion	"A paper's thesis is similar to [a paper's] conclusion, but it lacks the conclusion's concern for broad implications and significance."
	"The thesis is the product of your thinking; it therefore represents your [assertion's] conclusion about the topic on which you are writing."
	"The Components of a Thesis"
Assertion	"Like any other sentence, a thesis includes a subject and a predicate that makes an assertion about the subject."
Controlling Statement	"What distinguishes a thesis from any other sentence with a subject and a predicate is that the thesis presents the controlling idea of the paper."
		"The subject of a thesis, and the assertion about it, must present the right balance between the general and the specific to allow for a thorough discussion with the allotted length of the paper."
Scope	The broader your assertion, the longer your discussion must be. Seek to do something smaller in a bigger way, and not something big in a small way.	"Bear in mind when writing theses that the more general your subject and the more complex your assertion, the longer your discussion must be to cover the subject adequately."
Invention's Importance for Scope	Don't skip the invention stage: " ... to write an effective thesis and therefore a controlled, effective paper, you need to limit your subject and your claims about it."
	"Making and Assertion"
Assertions	"Thesis statements make [a reasonable] assertion or claim about your paper's topic."
Reasonableness	"One good way to gauge the reasonableness of your claim is to see what other authors have asserted about the same topic."
Process Tip	Starting tip: come up with a couple of working theses.
	Working theses amount to hypotheses. They become actual theses once you've written the body of your essay.	"Because you haven't begun a paper based of any of [those working theses], they remain hypotheses."
Unity	"After completing a first draft, you would revise [your working thesis] by comparing the contents of the paper to the thesis and making adjustments as necessary for unity."
	"Starting with a Working Thesis"
Timing	It can be difficult: " ... a thesis is a summary, and it is difficult to summarize a presentation yet to be written–especially if you plan to discover what you want to say during the process of writing."
		"Even if you know your material well, the best you can do at first is to formulate a working thesis–a hypothesis of sorts, a well-informed hunch about your topic and the claim you intend to make about it."
Unity	Worth repeating: "After completing a draft, you can evaluate the degree to which your working thesis accurately summarizes the content of your paper." You want to make sure that your working thesis and the body of your essay match each other, that they form a unity.
		"If the match is a good one, the working thesis becomes the final thesis."
Revise for Unity	" ... if sections of the paper drift from the focus of the working thesis, you'll need to revise the thesis and the paper itself to ensure that the presentation is unified."
Excellent Point	"(You'll know the match between content and thesis is good when every paragraph directly refers to and develops some element of the thesis.)"
	"How Ambitious Should Your Thesis Be?" That depends, in large part, on what type of thesis you'll have.
Explanatory	"The explanatory thesis is often developed in response to short exam questions that call for information, not analysis ... ."
Mildly Argumentative	"The mildly argumentative thesis is appropriate for organizing reports (even lengthy ones), as well as for essay questions that call for some analysis ... ."
Strongly Argumentative	"The strongly argumentative thesis is used to organize papers and exam questions that call for information, analysis, and the writer's forcefully stated point of view ... ."
	The "strongly argumentative thesis" is the most difficult to support ...	"The strongly argumentative thesis, of course, is the riskiest of the three because you must state your position forcefully and make it appear to be reasonable–which requires that you offer evidence and defend against logical objections."
	but it is the most rewarding type of thesis to have.	"But such intellectual risks pay dividends; and if you become involved enough in your work to make challenging assertions, you will provoke challenging responses that enliven classroom discussions as well as your own learning."
Author's Summation	"In sum, for any topic you might explore in a paper, you can make any number of assertions–some relatively simple, some complex. On the basis of these assertions, you set yourself an agenda for your writing–and readers set for themselves expectations for reading. The more ambitious the thesis, the more complex will be the paper and the greater the readers' expectations."
Writing Introductions and Conclusions	In general, introductions bring your readers from what they know towards what they don't yet know, your argument. (Conclusions are less straightforward, as we'll see.)
	Introductions frame your discussion in its broader context so that the reader can better understand that discussion.
Types of Introductions	Quoting Historical Reviews Reviewing a Controversy With a Question Statement of Thesis
"Quotation"	"Quoting the word of others offers many points of departure for your paper ... ." "You can agree with the quotation." "You can agree and expand." "You can sharply disagree." "You can use the quotation to set a historical context or establish a tone."
"Historical Review"	To help your readers in their efforts to follow your argument, you may need to refresh their memories about relevant historical events.
"Review of Controversy"	Depending on your thesis, it may be helpful to your reader to inform them of an ongoing debate so that they can see how your argument fits therein.
	"By focusing at the outset on the particular rather than on the abstract qualities of the topic, the writer hopes to secure the attention of her readers and involve them in the controversy that forms the subject of her paper."
"Question"	Questions can provoke interest. Ask "a question that appears to be easy," but then show how the question is actually not as easy to answer as one would initially think. But please, make sure that your answer to this question can be found in your essay–and that you introduce your reader to what your answer is.
"Statement of Thesis"	Shooting straight to the thesis "works well when you want to develop an unexpected, or controversial, argument."
My Favorite Way of Introducing	Sometimes your reader prefers one type of introduction over others, for certain types of essays. I have a preference for the type of essays you'll be turning into me.
Spare Introductions	I see introductions as having three parts, the beginning, middle, and end. In the beginning, supply your reader with as little information as is needed to understand your thesis. In the middle you state, and sometimes explain, your thesis. In the end supply your reader with a brief overview of how you will proceed in the remainder of your essay.
"Conclusions"	Take your reader from the known to the unknown in your introduction, and your conclusion, take your reader from the newly known back to the previously known, showing how what was previously known is now different in light of the newly known.
Summarization	Avoid merely summarizing what you've done in your essay. Rather, extend your essay "with a discussion of [its] significance or its implications for future study ... ."
Go Beyond ...	"[T]he conclusions of effective papers often reveal that their authors are 'thinking large' by placing their limited subject into a larger social, cultural, or historical context."
General Advice	"[N]o matter how clever or beautifully executed, a conclusion cannot salvage a poorly written essay."
Concluding with Modesty	"[B]y virtue of its placement, the conclusion carries rhetorical weight: it is the last statement a reader will encounter before turning from your work." "Realizing this, writers who expand on the basic summary conclusion often wish to give their final words a dramatic flourish, a heightened level of diction." Soaring rhetoric and drama in a conclusion are fine as long as they do not unbalance the paper and call attention to themselves." "Having labored long hours over your paper, you may be inclined at this point to wax eloquent." "But keep a sense of proportion and timing." "Make your points quickly and end crisply."
Some Types of Conclusions	Significance Further Research Prescriptions Question Speculative
"Statement of the Subject's Significance"	Theses must be interesting, and one of the ways to show how a thesis is interesting (after you have supported it) is to conclude by illustrating how your thesis is significant. Here, your thesis's specific concern is relevant to a broader concern.
Modesty	"[D]on't claim too great a significance for your work, lest by overreaching you pop the balloon and your reader thinks, 'No, the paper's not that important.'"
"Call for Further Research"	Another way to show how a thesis is interesting (after you have supported it) is to conclude by showing how your argument motivates further research. If your thesis is true, and if you've defended it well, then your reader may be motivated to think more about what you've said. Encourage your by showing how specific types of further research is needed.
"Solution/Recommendation"	When your essay reviews a problem, you can conclude by offering a solution, based on the fruits of your research.
	That solution may be a prescription for dealing with the issues you present in your essay.
"Question"	Concluding questions leave issues unresolved, and call on "readers to assume an active role by offering their own answers." Inasmuch, this way of concluding should be avoided (in my mind).
Better	"Rather than end with a question, you [should rather] choose to raise a question in your conclusion and then answer it, based on the material you've provide in the paper." "The answered question challenges a reader to agree or disagree with you and thus places the reader in an active role."
"Speculation"	"Speculation involves a spinning out of possibilities." "It stimulates readers by immersing them in your discussion of the unknown, implicitly challenging them to agree or disagree."
Yes!	"If you have provided the necessary information prior to a concluding speculation, you will send readers back into their lives (and away from your paper) with an implicit challenge: Do they regard the future as you do? Whether they do or not, you have set an agenda. You have got them thinking."
My Favorite Way of Concluding	Sometimes your reader prefers one type of conclusion over others, for certain types of essays. I have a preference for the type of essays you'll be turning into me.
Speculative Conclusions	In your conclusion you can consider what could possibly concluded, supposing that your thesis has been defended. Since this is just an exercise in "supposing," you can make statements that do not need support, though they need to be plausible. And again, sometimes it is in the conclusion that you show the reader why your thesis is interesting.
"Stage 5"	"Revision"
Obvious	It is obvious–right?–that you should revise your first draft. It is obvious, but what is obvious is not always what is done.
3 Types	(In order) Global Local Surface
Global	"Global revisions focus on the thesis, the type of pattern of evidence employed, the overall organization the match between thesis and content, and the tone. A global revision may also emerge from a change in purpose."
Local	"Local revisions focus on paragraphs: topic and transitional sentences; the type of evidence presented within a paragraph; evidence added, modified, or dropped within a paragraph; and logical connections from one sentence (or sets of sentences) within a paragraph to another."
Surface	Surface revisions deal with sentence style and construction as well as word choice. Sentence editing involves correcting errors of grammar, mechanics, spelling, and citation form.
"[R]e-vision"	"Think of revision as re-vision, or 'seeing anew.'" "In order to re-see, it's often useful to your paper aside fro a time and come back later to vie your rough draft with a fresh eye." "Doing so will better allow you to determine whether your paper effectively deals with its subject ... ."
	Have you ever had a paper returned to you and then said, "how could I have made such an easy mistake?" Setting your essay aside for a day or so usually helps you avoid saying that when your essay is returned.
"Characteristics of Good Papers"	Good essays are: 1) Unified 2) Internally Coherent 3) Developed
Unity	"A paper is unified when it is focused on a main point. As we've noted, the chief tool for achieving paper unity is the thesis: It's hard to achieve unity in a paper when its central points remain unstated."
Steps to Ensure Unity	The three steps for unity are: 1) "examine your introduction and make sure you have a clear, identifiable thesis;" 2) "check your paper's interior paragraphs to make sure that all your points relate to that thesis;" and 3) "ask your self how your conclusion provides closure to the discussion."
Coherence	"'Coherence' means 'logical interconnectedness." "When things cohere, elements come together and make a whole." "Good papers ... hold together logically and stay focused on a main point." "[A]ll ... subpoints, examples and supporting quotations are presented in a logical order so that connections between them are clear." Subpoints also relate to each other, and you should show your reader how.
Development	"Good papers are also well developed, meaning that their points are fully explained and supported." "Readers do not live inside your head." "They will not fully understand your points unless you adequately explain them."
Development/Support	" ... provide support for your arguments by using examples, the opinions of authorities on the subject, and your own sound logic to hold it all together."
Paragraphs	And don't forget, those three principles apply to individual paragraphs as well.
Reverse Outline	The reverse outline can help you ensure unity and development. Regular outlines are done in advance of a draft. Reverse outlines occur after a draft has been crafted. The reverse outline consists of very brief summaries of your thesis, and then of each paragraph that follows it. This allows you to see the structure of your essay, and assess its coherence and unity.
"Stage 6"	"Editing"
Obvious	It is obvious–right?–that you should edit your essay before you turn it in. It is obvious, but what is obvious is not always what is done.
Unedited Errors Detract	"Don't risk ruining a thoughtful, well-developed paper with sentence level errors ... ."
"Editing for Style"	The authors give a useful tip on avoiding too many "choppy, repetitive sentences."
Conjoining	"You can link related ideas with subordinating conjunctions (because, since, while, although, etc.), commas and coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so); and semicolons and coordinating adverbs (however, thus, therefore, etc.)."
"The Final Draft"	It can be difficult to know when you're done. "Assuming you have revised at the sentence-level for grammar and punctuation, when you get the impression that your changes do not actively advance the main point with new facts, arguments, illustrations, or supporting quotations, you are probably done."
And ...	"Stop writing and prepare a clean draft. Set it aside for a day or two ... and read it one last time ... ."

A Sequence for Academic Writing, pp. 252-256: "Chapter 7–Locating, Mining, and Citing Sources"

"Chapter 7"	"Locating, Mining, and Citing Sources"	Behrens, Laurence and Leonard J. Rosen. A Sequence for Academic Writing. 5^th Ed.
Research	Research is self-education; it "extends the boundaries of your knowledge ... ." It also "enables you to share your findings with others."
Success	To do successful research, you'll need to learn to find "relevant, significant, reliable, and current sources."	"The quality of your research and the success of any paper on which it is based is directly related to your success in locating relevant, significant, reliable, and current sources."
Overview of Relevant Steps to Doing Research	Begin with a research question. "Formulate an important question that you propose to answer through your research."
Locate Sources	Locate "relevant, significant, reliable, and current sources."
	"Conduct preliminary research. Consult knowledgeable people, general and specialized encyclopedias, overviews and bibliographies in recent books, the Bibliographic Index, and subject-heading guides."
	"Refine your research question. Based on your preliminary research, brainstorm about your topic and ways to answer your research question. Sharpen your focus, refining your question and planning the sources you'll need to consult."
	"Conduct focused research. Consult books, electronic databases, general and specialized periodicals, biographical indexes, general and specialized dictionaries, government publications, and other appropriate sources."
Mining Sources	Formulate a working thesis.
	Keep track of sources (even ones that you initially think you won't need) with a working bibliography.
	"Evaluate sources. Determine the veracity and reliability of your sources; use your critical reading skills; check Book Review Digest; look up biographies of authors." Learn how to identify peer-review articles.
	Keep notes on your sources. This can help you avoid plagiarism later on.
More Detailed Approach to Relevant Steps to Doing Research
The Research Question	Your research question should fulfill the relevant requirements and should be of interest to you.	"Pose a question to guide your research, one that interests you and allows you to fulfill the requirements of an assignment."
The Research Answer	When you arrive at an answer to your research question, you have the thesis to your research paper.	"In time, the short answer to this research question will become the thesis of your paper."
Healthy, Initial Naïveté	"By working with a research question (as opposed to a thesis) early in the research process, you acknowledge that you still have ideas and information to discover before reaching your conclusions and beginning to write."
Steps to Arriving at an Effective Research Question	Neutrality Emphasis Scope
Neutrality	"Pose neutral questions that open you to a variety of ideas and information. Avoid biased questions that suggest their own answers."
Emphasis	"Emphasize how/why/what questions that open discussion. Avoid yes or no questions that end discussions."
Scope	"Match the scope of your question to the scope of your paper. Avoid too-broad topics for brief papers; avoid too-narrow topics for longer papers."
Tips for Narrowing a Broad Subject	"Search by subject in an electronic database to see how the subject breaks down into components." "Search the subject heading in an electronic periodical catalogue such as InfoTrac® or in a print catalogue such as the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature." "Search the Library of Congress Subject Headings catalogue ... ."
"Locating Sources"	Once you have your basic research question, "find out what references are available."
	You'll want to know the basic issues related to your research question. Establish a preliminary list of sources.
"Preliminary Research"	Consider beginning "with the most general reference sources: encyclopedias, bibliographic listings, biographical works, and dictionaries."
	Such sources are frequently useful in getting yourself up to speed on the issues relevant to your research question, preparing you for more intense research later.
"Consult Knowledgeable People"	"[D]on't neglect a key reference: other people." No, seriously.
Wikipedia	"One of the Web's most popular sites for general information is Wikipedia ... ." "The site is thoroughly democratic: not only can anyone write articles for Wikipedia, anyone can edit articles others have written." "At the same time, and for the same reasons, these articles can be of doubtful accuracy and reliability." "Authors of Wikipedia articles need no qualifications to write on their chosen subject, and their entries are subject to no peer review or fact-checking." " ... many of these articles conclude with a section of 'External Links.' These links often provide access to sources of established reliability, such as government agencies or academic sites."
"Focused Research"	Having completed your preliminary research, aimed at coming up with your research question, it is time to conduct focused research based off of your research question.
The Goal	To gain enough research material so that "you will at least have become someone whose critical viewpoint is based solidly on the available evidence."
The Interwebs	"Good queries yield good results; poor queries, poor results."
Effective Queries	1) "Focus on a noun" 2) Narrow with another noun, or modifier 3) Substitute words 4) "Use 'advanced' features to refine your research"
Nice Guideline	"As a rule of thumb, use several search services ... in any given search to ensure that you don't miss important sites and sources of information." "Because each service uses a different method to catalog Web sites, each service will return a different results list for searches on the same term."
"Using Keywords and Boolean Logic to Refine Online Searches"	1) "Identify multiple keywords" 2) "Conduct searches using different combinations of synonyms and related terms" 3) "Find new terms in the sources you locate and search with them" 4) "Use quotation marks around words you want linked" 5) "Use 'Boolean operators' to link keywords" "AND: Connecting keywords with AND narrows a search by retrieving only those sources taht contain both keywords ... ." "OR: Connecting keywords with OR broadens a search by retrieving all sources that contain at least one of the search terms. This operator is useful when you have a topic/keyword for which there are a number of synonyms. Linking synonyms with OR will lead you to the widest array of sources ... ." "AND and OR: You can use these terms in combination, by putting the OR phrase in parentheses ... ." "NOT: Connecting keywords with NOT (or, in some cases, AND NOT) narrows a search by excluding certain terms. IF you want to focus on a very specific topic, NOT can be used to limit what the search engine retrieves; however, this operator should be used carefully as it can cause you to miss sources that may actually be relevant ... ."
"Evaluating Web Sources"	How to separate the wheat from the chaff on the internet–that is the problem we turn to now.

Steps	"When evaluating a site and determining its reliability for use in a research project, apply the same general criteria that you apply to print sources: (1) accuracy, (2) authority, (3) objectivity, (4) currency, (5) coverage."
Steps as Questions	"What's the likelihood that the information has been checked by anyone other than the author?" "What are the author's qualifications to write on the subject?" "What is the reputation of the author?" "Who is the author?" "What are the biases–stated or unstated–of the Web site?" "How current is the site?" "Which topics are included (and not included) in the site? To what extent are the topics covered in depth?"
General Periodicals	General periodicals are written for general, non-specialized audiences. They include a number of magazines and newspapers.
Specialized Periodicals	Specialized periodicals assume a level of knowledge about a specialized topic. They include a number of journals and studies. These specialized periodicals are to be evaluated to determine if they are scholarly journals.
	"Articles in such journals are normally written by specialists and professionals in the field ... and the authors will assume that their readers already understand basic facts and issues concerning the subject."
Scholarly Journals	"They tend to be heavily researched, as indicated by their numerous notes and references." "They are generally published by university presses." "Most of the authors represented are university professors." "The articles, which have a serious, formal, and scholarly tone, are generally peer reviewed by other scholars in the field."
Books	In our textbook we find a section about books: "Books are useful for providing both breadth and depth of coverage of a subject." For general research, don't be afraid to just go to the library and see what books are on the shelf related to your interest. Sometimes you'll find titles that you would not have otherwise found.
"Government Publications"	The United States government has a number of institutions that publish statistical data. It can sometimes be very useful to know such information when writing certain types of research essays.
"Mining Sources"	This involves "extracting ... information and ideas that you can use in your paper." Compile a working bibliography. Evaluate sources, and keep notes about them. Develop working outline, one that "allows you to see how you might subdivide and organize your discussion and at which points you might draw on relevant sources."
"The Working Bibliography"	"If you are careful to record full bibliographic information ... you'll spare yourself the frustration of hunting for it during the composition of your paper."
Notes	And when crafting your working bibliography, keep notes on your sources. Sometimes you will discover that a source you didn't think you'd need turns out to be a source you in fact need, and keeping notes on sources can help you track down that source.
Annotated Bibliography	An annotated bibliography "is a list of relevant works on a subject, with the [relevant parts of the] contents of each work briefly described or assessed." "Annotations differ from abstracts in that annotations aren't comprehensive summaries; rather, they indicate how the items may be useful to the researcher."
"Guidelines for Evaluating Sources"	"Skim the source. With a book, look over the table of contents, the introduction and conclusion, and the index; zero in on passages that your initial survey suggests are important. With an article, skim the introduction and the headings." "Be alert for references in your sources to other important sources, particularly to sources that several authors treat as important." "Other things being equal, the more recent the source, the better. Recent work usually incorporates or refers to important earlier work." "If you're considering making multiple references to a book, look up the reviews in Book Review Digest or the Book Review Index. Also, check the author's credentials in a source such as Contemporary Authors or Current Biography."
"Research and Plagiarism"	Plagiarism is a big deal. There are also nuances to it that good researchers should know about. As the textbook's authors indicate: "All too easily, research can lead to plagiarism." Easily? We'll look at some causes of plagiarism, and how to avoid them.
"Time Management and Plagiarism"	A common problem for researchers is time management. Putting things off until the last minute can motivate one to take the easy way out and just present others' research as one's own. Start working on assignments as soon as you find out about them. Learn to manage your time more effectively. Ask for an extension before the assignment is due (see the syllabus for specific instructions on when to ask for an extension).
"Confidence and Plagiarism"	A common problem for researchers starting out has to do with a lack of confidence in their own ideas. "Understand that knowledge about your topic, and your confidence to present it in your own words, will increase in direct proportion to your research." "[B]reak the assignment down into manageable parts." Research, research, research. Seek to over-prepare yourself by doing more work. This will help you gain confidence.
"Note-Taking and Plagiarism"	"You neglect to place quotation marks around quoted language" in the note-taking phase of your research, "and later copy the note into the paper without using quotation marks." Learn how to take better notes. If you cut and paste from the internet or an electronic document develop the constant habit of putting whatever you paste in quotation marks. Attach bibliographic material to all of your notes. Consider installing Zotero (or some similar extention) into your browser.
"Digital Life and Plagiarism"	The internet makes plagiarism easy. "Recall some of the reasons you are in college:" 1) "to improve your ability to think critically," 2) "to learn how to think independently," and 3) "to discover your own voice as a thinker and writer." "Borrowing the work of others without giving due credit robs you of an opportunity to pursue these goals." "Don't allow the ease of plagiarism in the digital age to compromise your ethics." "Easily managed or not, plagiarism is cheating."
"Determining Common Knowledge"	When the words or ideas had by others are common knowledge, you don't need to cite an instance of others having written or uttered them. "[S]hared, collective information" don't require citation. "What is considered common knowledge changes from subject area to subject area." "When in doubt, ask your instructor." "The key issue underlying the question of common knowledge is the likelihood of the readers' mistakenly thinking that a certain idea or item of information originated with you when, in fact, it did not. If there is any chance of such a mistake occurring, cite the source."
A Guideline	"If the idea or information you intend to use can be found unattributed (that is, not credited to a specific author) in three or more sources, then you can consider the material common knowledge." "But remember: If you quote a source (even if the material could be considered common knowledge), you must use quotation marks and give credit."