Essay Writing Notes by Christopher Lay

Pierce College

Department of History, Philosophy, and Sociology

Tips for Writing Philosophical Arguments and Philosophical Essays

Careful	Science classes have many appeals, and one of them is the fact that things like 2+2=4 are the same regardless of which math class you are in. Things aren't as easy in philosophy class. Different professors can have different expectations. What follows are notes that spell out some of the general expectations I have for essays turned into me.
Philosophy Essays	An academic philosophy essay is not the same thing as an English paper or a history paper.   Just as you don't normally turn in poetry to a physics class, or chemistry formulas to an anthropology course, you don't normally turn in standard English papers in to a philosophy course.  But what is an academic philosophy essay? For me academic philosophy essays should show that the student has 1) understood a relevant part of the assigned reading and 2) can provide a relevant, original argument having to do with that part of the assigned reading.
"Doing the Math" / "Showing Your Work	It is worth noting that there is some similarity between philosophy papers and math homework: remember when you were learning how to do division the "long" way and your teacher told you to "show your work?" Well, something similar applies here: you need to show your work.  As such, the correct answer is insufficient; you need to show how you came to the correct answer.  (This is just another way of saying that you must explain your points.)  Put another way: don't assume that your reader knows why you are writing what you are writing.
"The Structure"	Here is a paragraph structure that you can use to explain a key concept. Statement, quote, paraphrase, example, or analogy. Definition of relevant term(s) from that statement. What that statement means. Why is means that. What the statement doesn't mean X (semi-obviously). Why the statement doesn't mean X. What else the statement doesn't mean, say Y (less obviously) Why the statement doesn't mean Y. What your reader should think as a result of having read the paragraph [Now, if you have space and need, a follow-up paragraph structure.] Example of what it means. Explanation of why that example exemplifies what you say it exemplifies. Explain what the example doesn't show. Explain now how the statement and the example are relevant to your thesis.
Introductions	In your introduction you need to introduce your reader to your entire essay. I argue that academic philosophy essays' introductions have three parts: 1) Give your reader as little information as possible to understand your thesis. 2) Provide your reader with your thesis statement (which can sometimes be rather long for short essays). 3) Introduce your reader to how you will support your thesis (that is, introduce your reader to the argument you use to support your thesis). I call this the roadmap. A roadmap tells your reader, explicitly, how you will explain and defend your thesis.  It is something you say after positing your thesis, and before you begin to explain and defend it.  As such, it introduces your reader to how you will execute your thesis.  Here's a useful way of thinking about introductions in academic philosophy essays: your introduction should "spoil" your entire essay.
Introduction Writing Advice	If you are like me, you'll need a working introduction just to get the writing ball rolling. But I usually end up supporting a thesis that is different from the one I begin with. So, I argue that you should rewrite your introduction after you have a fairly final draft of your entire essay.
Thesis Placement	Academic philosophy essays are not mystery novels: the reader shouldn't find out "who-done-it" at the end. For essays turn in to me your thesis should be in your first paragraph.
The Role of Theses	Having a thesis is having a point of view, and your essay supports your thesis.  As such, you thesis is that which guides your paper.  Frequently, when reader asks, "how is this relevant?" they are wondering how what you've written fits in with your thesis. Everything in the essay should relate to that thesis in a supporting way.  The longer the paper the more intermediary steps there may be needed to explain why something is necessary, but you should always be able to answer, for each sentence, why it belongs in your paper. The ultimate answer should always be, "because it relates to/supports my thesis."  You need to come up with a thesis that answers any given prompt.
Parts of the Thesis	Your thesis should be yours (original), an argumentative claim, and it should be at least somewhat interesting.
Modesty in Theses	Modesty here means two things, first, that you don't overstate what it is you have done (or think you have done), and second, that you don't bite off more than you can chew. First:  don't claim to have "proven" something unless you really have.  It is far too easy for someone, usually, to disprove you.  For instance, instead of "proven false," consider "cast a shadow of doubt upon."  It is easier to get readers to agree with the latter, and less easy to get them to agree with the former. Second:  don't try and do more than space and time allows.  Here's the best advice I ever got in college:  do something small in a big way, not something big in a small way.  This second form of modesty requires more attention.  I said that you ought not try and do more than space and time allows. A five-page paper is not going to have a thesis about an entire set of social or psychological phenomena, or about an entire novel, but about a small set of features of such things.  Choosing the scope of your thesis (how broadly it can be applied) is very difficult, but a properly narrow thesis is much better than unwieldy, broad thesis.
Interesting Theses	Sometimes you need to convince your reader that your thesis is interesting (philosophical theses can sound pretty boring at times).  One good way to do this is to have a conclusion wherein you speculate about what would be the case if your thesis is correct.  By showing the interesting implications of your thesis, you can show how your thesis itself is interesting, and thus deserving of attention.
One Last Point About Theses	"I believe" claims tend not to be thesis claims.  Moreover, in philosophy we are interested in arguments (at least at first). Besides, I will be grading your on your capacities to carry on an argument, not on your beliefs–grading beliefs is not what I do.

Quoting v. Paraphrasing

For essays turned in to me your thesis should be relevant to a part of an assigned text. That means that you'll need to summarize and explain that part of the assigned text. Sometimes you may even need to quote parts of the text. Finding the correct quote can be exhilarating, but putting it into your paper may not be necessary.  Finding the quote, and putting it into your paper is easy, but paraphrasing that quote is usually more difficult–but also more rewarding.  Most importantly, it shows that you understand the quote.  Paraphrasing is, in general, better than quoting.  Here is a good, general guide for when to paraphrase instead of quoting:  if you can convey the same information in your own words without loss of meaning, then a paraphrase is usually better. Readers of your paper tend to understand you better than they understand academic philosophical writing (right?!?).  When grading your papers, graders need to see that you understand what it is that you are representing (hence the "show your work" point from above). If you can properly paraphrase passages, then it shows your grader that you understand the material better than someone who can only find the correct passage and quote it.  And if a paraphrase won't do, whenever you quote, you should also explain the quote to the reader, to help them understand it (and to show your grader that you yourself understand the quote).

Good Quoting v. Bad Quoting

Quoting is usually necessary when:     1) attributing something controversial to the person quoted,     2) you are pointing out something that is too easily overlooked, or     3) your entire thesis depends on particular wording. Bad quoting occurs, in my mind, when it seems like:     1) you have nothing to say and so are throwing in quotes,     2) you are using long quotes to fluff up your essay, or     3) you are afraid to commit to a paraphrase, when a           paraphrase would convey the same information.

Your Argument	Consider your thesis as the conclusion to your argument. This helps you think of your essays as supplying the parts that are needed for your reader to understand and be persuaded by your thesis.
Argument	When you have a thesis, you need to support it. Consider this, from Chapter Four "'Yes / No / Okay, But:' "Three Ways to Respond" of Gerald Graff & Cathy Birkenstein's They Say, I Say: "To make an argument, you need to give reasons to support what you say: because another's argument fails to take relevant factors into account; because it is based on faulty or incomplete evidence; because it rests on questionable assumptions; or because it uses flawed logic, is contradictory, or overlooks what you take to be the real issue."
Argument with Agreement	There are many ways to contribute to a conversation by agreeing with what someone else has said, in an argumentative way. Consider this, from Chapter Four "'Yes / No / Okay, But:' "Three Ways to Respond" of Gerald Graff & Cathy Birkenstein's They Say, I Say: You can argue for a plausible understand of what you agree with by "pointing out unnoticed implications or explaining something that needs to be better understood." "You may point out some unnoticed evidence or line of reasoning that supports X's claims that X herself hadn't mentioned." "You may cite some ... situation not mentioned by X that her views help readers understand." "If X's views are particularly challenging or esoteric, what you bring to the table could be an accessible translation–an explanation for readers not already in the know." But make sure that you show how you are not repeating what others have said. "[O]pen up some difference between your position and the one you're agreeing with ... ."

Gerald Graff & Cathy Birkenstein's They Say, I Say

Chapter Six "'Skeptics May Object:' Planting a Naysayer in Your Text"	Introducing a naysayer strengthens what you say by responding to what hypothetical, critical others could say in response to your original argument.	Gerald Graff & Cathy Birkenstein's They Say, I Say
Benefits	Don't be upset when others criticize your work, consider it as an opportunity to revise and strengthen, or sometimes even reverse, your standpoint.	"[E]ven though most of us are upset at the idea of someone criticizing our work, such criticisms can actually work to our advantage."
Improvement	When objections are heard and answered, your essay can be markedly improved.	"[O]ur writing actually improves when we not only listen to these objections but give them an explicit hearing in our writing."
Yep	"[N]o single device more quickly improves a piece of writing [that already has a thesis] than the practice of planting a naysayer in the text ... ."
"Anticipate Objections"	Buy you'll want to try and figure out how someone could object to what you've written before others have even read it.
Credibility	Considering how others could object to your argument certainly does "enhance your credibility."	"We are urging you to tell readers what others might say against you, but our point is that doing so will actually enhance your credibility, not undermine it."
Imagined Other	Imagine "what others might say against your argument."	Engage "others in a dialogue or debate ... by opening your text with a summary of what others have said, as we suggest in Chapter 1, but also by imagining what others might say against your argument as it unfolds."
	"When you entertain a counterargument, you make a kind of preemptive strike, identifying problems with your argument before others can point them out for you."	"[O]pposing arguments can work for you rather than against you."
Ethos	By considering possible objections, you treat your readers "as independent, critical thinkers who are aware that yours is not the only view in town."	"[B]y entertaining counterarguments, you show respect for your readers, treating them not as gullible dupes but as independent, critical thinkers who are aware that yours is not the only view in town."
	" ... you come across as a generous, broad-minded person who is secure enough to open himself or herself to debate ... ."
Pragmatics	(Considering how someone could object to your argument, you will have less of a hard time meeting an essay prompt's page length requirements.)	"[I]f you fail to plant a naysayer in your text, you may find that you have very little to say."
Vague Other	Considered objections can be put forth as what "one" could argue.	"[T]he objections in the [first set of templates for this chapter] are attributed not to any specific person or group, but to 'skeptics,' 'readers,' or 'many.'"
More Determinate Other	Considered objections can also be put forth as the type of objection that a particular group could assert. "Philosophers may disagree ... ." "One-legged honeybadgers will object that ... ."	"But the ideas that motivate arguments and objections often can–and, where possible, should–be ascribed to a specific ideology or school of thought (for example, liberals, Christian fundamentalists, neopragmatists) rather than to anonymous anybodies."
Labeling	Labeling your naysayer "can add precision and impact."	"In other words, naysayers can be labeled, and you can add precision and impact to your writing by identifying what they are."
Cautiously	These labels do put people in "boxes, stereotyping them and glossing over what makes each individual unique."	"To be sure, some people dislike such labels and may even resent having them applied to themselves. Some feel that such labels put individuals in boxes, stereotyping them and glossing over what makes each individual unique."
Stereotyping	"And it's true that labels can be used inappropriately, in ways that ignore individuality and promote stereotypes."
Categories for Life	"But since the life of ideas, including many of our most private thoughts, is conducted through groups and types rather than by solitary individuals, intellectual exchange requires labels to give definition and serve as a convenient shorthand."
		"If you categorically reject all labels, you give up an important resource and even mislead readers by presenting yourself and others as having no connection to anyone else."
		"You also miss an opportunity to generalize the importance and relevance of your work to some larger conversation."
Cautious Procedure	"The way to minimize the problem of stereotyping, then, is not to categorically reject labels but to refine and qualify their use ... ."
"Represent Objections Fairly"	Just as you should introduce and summarize others' views without bias, so too should supposed objections be presented without bias.
Fairness and Generosity	"[R]epresent and explain [the supposed objection] with fairness and generosity."	"Once you've decided to introduce a differing or opposing view into your writing, your work has only just begun, since you still need to represent and explain that view with fairness and generosity."
Credibility	"When writers make the best case they can for their critics (playing what Peter Elbow calls the "believing game"), they actually bolster their credibility with readers, rather than undermine it."	"Although it is tempting to give opposing views short shrift, to hurry past them, or even to mock them, doing so is usually counterproductive."
Make a Strong Case for the Objection	Try and present your supposed objection as fully and seriously as possible.	"[W]henever you entertain objections in your writing you stay with them for several sentences or even paragraphs and take them as seriously as possible."
Empathic Perspective	"[R]ead your summary of opposing views with an outsider's eye: put yourself in the shoes of someone who disagrees with you and ask if such a reader would recognize himself in your summary."
"Answer Objections"	But be sure, of course, to answer the supposed objection.
Persuade	Persuade your reader with your answer.	"[W]hen you represent objections successfully, you need to answer those objections persuasively."
Risky	There is a risk here. Your reader may be more convinced of your objection than your answer.	"[W]hen you write objections into a text, you always take the risk that readers will find those objections more convincing than the argument you yourself are advancing."
	"[Y]ou need to do your best to make sure that any counter-argument you address is not more convincing than your own claims. It is good to address objections in your writing, but only if you are able to overcome them."
Whoa ...	Really? What do you do with supposed objections that you cannot persuasively answer? Bury your head in the sand? The authors have better advice, to which we'll turn soon.
Middle Route	"Often the best way to overcome an objection is not to try to refute it completely, but to agree with certain parts while challenging only those you dispute."
Self-Education	Treat "the counter-view as an opportunity to revise and refine your own position."
Formalism or Inquiry?	"Rather than building your argument into an impenetrable fortress, it is often best to make concessions while still standing your ground ... ."
Not Formalism	"[A]nswering naysayers' objections does not have to be an all-or-nothing affair in which you either definitively refute your critics or they definitively refute you."
Rather Inquiry	"Often the most productive engagements among differing views end with a combined vision that incorporates elements of each one."
Don't Be an Ostrich	Now, what to do with those objections that you can't seem to come up with a persuasive answer for?	"But what if you've tried out all the possible answers you can think of to an objection you've anticipated and you still have a nagging feeling that the objection is more convincing than your argument itself?"
Abandon Ship!	"In that case, the best remedy is to go back and make some fundamental revisions to your argument, even reversing your position completely if need be."
Yes!	"Although finding out late in the game that you aren't fully convinced by your own argument can be painful, it can actually make your final text more intellectually honest, challenging, and serious."
	"After all, the goal of writing is not to keep proving that whatever you initially said is right, but to stretch the limits of your thinking."
	"So if planting a strong naysayer in your text forces you to change your mind, that's not a bad thing."
	"Some would argue that that is what school and learning are all about."

Sign-Posting	Supporting complex theses sometimes requires you to help your reader stay on point.  Your essay should have a rigid structure, and your reader may need to be reminded of that structure.  Books do it with chapters, larger research papers do it with sections.  You can remind your readers of your structure by giving them signposts at key points of transition. Signposts usually correspond to the claims you make in the "roadmap" part of your introduction.  For example, "Having considered y, it is now time to look at z," or, "Before turning to a defense of my thesis, I shall first explain x."  It sounds like a petty exercise, but it has value.  First, as I've argued, it helps the reader stay on (the structure) track. Second, it helps you stay on (the structure) track.  Third, and this is most important, it requires you to do what you say you've done.  As I've found, what a researcher thinks they've done is often times different from what they've actually done.  Having to say what you've done makes this mistake less likely.  Fourthly, readers are sometimes gullible, and they'll fall for what you've said you've done as opposed to what you've actually done. But don't over do it.  A five-page essay would probably only have two–maybe three–"signposts."
Conclusions	It is in your conclusion where you "broaden out," as opposed to the "narrowing in" of the introduction. Introductions and conclusions include broad considerations, and the support sections of your essays are all about narrow issues.  In your conclusion you can consider what could possibly concluded, supposing that your thesis has been defended.  Since this is just an exercise in "supposing," you can make statements that do not need support, though they need to be plausible.  This tactic can be accompanied by tacit claims that "additional research is needed."  Just as the introduction shows how your research fits into a broader spectrum of research, so too does your conclusion.
Conclusion Writing Advice	For essays turned in to me, please avoid the "repeater" conclusion where you summarize all that you've already said. That type of summarization belongs in the introduction.